ARt History

19th Century Art

Neoclassical Art

Romanticism

Nineteenth Century Art: Neoclassical Art

• began as a reactions of Neoclassicism--> inspired nationalist movements
• characteristics:
• express personal emotions
• rejects reason in favor of intuition (Rousseau)
• religious and faithful
• medieval arts (Dante/Shakespeare/natural phenomena/chivalry)
• Henry Fuseli- The Nightmare (1781); dreams & nightmares; Swiss; lived in England
• Theodore Gericault- Raft of the Medusa (1818.9); Romantic subject & Classical/Renaissance style (inspired by Caravaggio's The Entombment); based on true story of ship that ran ground, 10/150 people survived; member of abolitionist group (black at top of pyramid) represented what was wrong with society:
• captain as a political appointee & hadn't sailed in 20 yrs
• officers took lifeboats, lower-classes left behind

• 18th century education was finished after a Grand Tour in Europe.
• J.J. Winckelmann: German scholar; wrote The History of Ancient Art
• Angelica Kauffman: English; Cornelia, Mother of the Grachhi
• neoclassical virtue replaced rococo vice
• Benjamin West: American; The Death of General Wolfe
• British victory over Canadian Quebec city- (encouraged to dress in antique clothing, but they were dressed in modern clothes)

Realism/Photography

Impressionism

Other Late 19th c. Art Styles

Japonisme

• 1853, Japanese ports opened to trade with the West after 200 years
• woodcut prints, fans, and kimonos became available to Europeans
• by Japanese masters of the ukiyo-e tradition

• Chardin- painted middle/lower classes during Rococo era in France
• Louis Le Nain- Family of Country People (1640); Realist from the French Baroque era; depicted peasants during the Thirty Years' War
• Gustave Courbet- Burial at Ornans (1849/50); "father of Realism" (Realist Manifesto); committed to social issues for working class; piece depicts commoners on a monumental scale (previously reserved for historical, religious, or royal themes); loose brushstrokes with areas deliberately "unfinished"; critics called it crude
• Jean-Francois Millet- The Gleaners (1857); leader of the Barbizon School (artists that moved to a village in French countryside in 1820s & embraced the terrain); depicts rural poverty (Gleaners- poor women allowed to harvest last of the grains); public hated his work because it reminded them of the threat the poor posed (esp. after The Communist Manifesto)

• 2nd IR- steel, chemicals, power, communication
• European population doubled in a century; moved to US; cities>rural
• Fin de Siecle = end of the century
• sense of decadence w/ excitement+ despair over changes

• Claude Monet- Rouen Cathedral:The Portal (in Sun) (1892/3); 1/30 completed using same composition- unique time of day, year, weather; use of light and color; well-known for haystacks and water lilies subject material
• Pierre-Auguste Renoir- Luncheon of the Party (1880/1); modern forms of leisure; railways allowed Parisians to go to countryside; dissipation of class lines (all welcome)
• Gustave Caillebotte- Paris: A Rainy Day (1877); captures change in Paris in 1851 under Napoleon III- Baron Haussann transformed into a modern city (wider streets; replaced buildings); cropping is evidence of photography influence; Gare Saint-Lazare Train Station in background

Symbolism

• Rosa Bonheur- The Horse Fair (1853/55); shunned convention (dressed like a man); loved animals; first woman to be awarded the Legion of Honor, given by Napoleon III
• Honore Daumier- The Third-Class Carriage (1862/64); depicts modern urban life; expresses alienation of lower class by depicting them crammed together but disinterested in one another; well-known for satirical caricatures depicting industrialization
• Edouard Manet- Le Dejeuner sur l'Herbe (1863), depicts bourgeoisie men conversing in the company of nude women; Olympia (1863), depicts young prostitute and African maid handing her a gift from a client; both inspired by Venetians Giorgione and Titian; both considered scandalous b/c nude women (rather than goddesses) looking at viewer, defies conventional subject matter, influenced by photography; considered first Modernist painter

• Britain led Industrial Revolution- cheap labor, new farming methods, medical advances, banking, science focus-->alienation (urbanization), labor unions (class distinctions), bourgeoisie had leisure time, socialism (societal ills)
• Modernism (1860s+):
• desire to depicts ideas of their time
• critical reflection
• acknowledgment of illusions of art
• independence from exhibitions (like Salons)
• Realism- reaction to Romanticism, creating art for art's sake rather than a patron, critical view on IR, sympathy for working class, depict the truth, photography

• characterized by:
• fascination with inner world of fantasy
• emphasis on imagination rather than copying nature
• mythological stories/characters
• Odilon Redon- The Cyclops (1914); leader of symbolism movement; loose brushwork/light colors--> mythological
• Gustave Moreau- Jupiter and Semele (1894/5); depicts death of Semele (mortal lover of Jupiter); inspired by Byzantine mosaics, Indian mini paintings
• Henri Rousseau- The Sleeping Gypsy (1897); self-taught painter; inspired by children's books' illustrations; depicts sleeping mandolin player unaware of lion's danger
• Edvard Munch- The Scream, or The Cry (1893); Norwegian who influenced German Expressionism; influenced by Fyodor Dostoyevsky; part of a series on the life of the soul; represents height of anxiety, the soul's final breaking point

Austrian Secession

• Caspar David Friedrich- Wanderer Above a Sea of Mist (1818); German; used landscapes to portray emotion + religious mysticism; may be a metaphor for inability to control future
• Joseph Mallord William Turner- The Slave Ship, or Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On (1840); sympathetic to abolitionists; depicts slave trade (common practice to throw dying slaves overboard for insurance); inspired Impressionist and Expressionist artists.
• The Hudson River School- American artists influenced y Romanticism documentation of natural landscapes (western- Manifest Destiny)
• Albert Bierstadt- The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak [1863]; detailed, waterfall = MD

• 1st exhibit in Paris in 1874 under name: The Anonymous Society of Painters, Sculptors, Printmakers, etc. (each had a unique style)
• Characteristic:
• independent from official salon of Paris
• depiction of modern life
• rejection of established styles
• embracing the "avant-garde"
• new techniques- short, choppy strokes, bright color, effects of light
• spontaneity
• synthetic pigments+ready-made paint
• influence of photography
• interested in "plein air" [outdoor painting] landscape painting (Barbizon School)
• Ended by 1886

• Eugene Delacroix- Liberty Leading the People (1830); commemorating July Revolution of 1830 against the reign of Charles X of France; Liberty depicted as goddesslike and a commoner (red cap); controversial; in Paris b/c of Notre Dame; King Louis-Philippe succeeded to the throne and hung the work.
• Francisco Goya:
• The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters (1798)- 1/80 allegorical etchings; artist being attacked by Spanish society's ignorance/folly; court painter & couldn't explicitly express his sympathy for lower class b/ of Inquisition
• The Third of May, 1808 (1814)- Napoleon's brother Joseph became ruler of Spain; painted to commemorate the uprising against the French; meant to inspire Spanish sympathy; man in center is a metaphor for Jesus; use of light--> terror

• 1897- artists rejected conservative Vienna art
• created own exhibition space and allowed Fr Impressionist work to be exhibited
• heavily based on Art Nouveau
• 1905- Klimt left secession due to differences in opinion
• Gustave Klimt- The Kiss (1907/8); combines elements of Symbolism, Arts and Crafts, Art Nouveau; specialized in depicting Viennese society ladies; depicts melding together of two people during embrace.

Sculpture

Pre-Raphaelites

• Edgar Degas- The Tub (1885/6); influence of Japanese woodcuts (elevated viewpt., semiabstract, simple subject matter); similar to Impressionists; first to use pastel as a medium for finished work rather than sketches
• Mary Cassatt- The Bath (1893); American (only); depicted children cared for by their mothers (reflect new ideas- encouraged to care for children themselves and bath them regularly); influenced by Japonisme in style (elevated viewpoint; simple color) & subject matter (common events)

• group of English artists that admired early Renaissance work by Raphael
• characterized by:
• rebellion against Victorian hypocrisy & academic art tradition
• depiction of religious/literary themes opposite of historical paintings of the time
• detailed work with luminous color
• Sir John Everett Millais- Ophelia (1852); depicts tragic scene from Hamlet when Ophelia drowns herself; founder of the group

• Jean-Baptist Carpeax- Count Ugolino and His Sons (1865/7); illustrates part of Dante's Divine Comedy (imprisonment/death of the count and his sons); moment when he eats his children; influenced by Hellenistic sculptures & Michelangelo
• Auguste Rodin
• Gates of Hell (1880-1917); commissioned by Directorate of Fine Arts for Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris; part of The Divine Comedy that focused on hell; inspired by Gothic sculptures; Dante and Baudelaire; Michelangelo
• The Thinker (1885); one of the sketches for Gates of Hell; exhibited by The Poet; considered revolutionary and modern

Architecture

Post-Impressionism

Photography

• cast iron--> fireproof mills & factories; iron/glass conservatories for aristocracy; prefabricated sections/parts; 1st cast iron bridge (1779)
• impurities-->explosions
• 1856- Henry Bessemer, mass production of cheap steel
• more durable and stronger

Art Nouveau

• broke away to express emotion/symbolism in work-->simplified colors/forms
• did not work as a group nor exhibit work together

Neoclassical Cont'd

• 1st photos (daguerreotypes), taken from window overlooking Parisian street
• controversial b/c considered more mechanical than artistic
• 1888- George Eastman invented 1st snapshot camera-->accessible to public
• Realist artists used it as a reference
• Josiah Johnson Hawes and Albert Sands Southworth- Early Operation Under Ether, Massachusetts Hospital (1847); in amphitheater at hospital; cofounder of hospital (Dr. John Warren) commissioned it to make first photo record of live medical operation; blurring caused by long exposure
• Nadar- Sarah Bernhardt (1865); woman that later became a famous dramatic actress; albumen print (made from negatives and used albumen, found in egg whites, to bind chemicals; popular 1855-1900); he found to legitimize photography as art

• Vincent van Gogh- The Night Cafe (1888); prolific artist; depicted tortured inner world; used bold color, impasto, swirling brushstrokes--> emotional; piece depicts cafe in Arles; few people--> atmosphere of loneliness/desolation
• Paul Cezanne- The Basket of Apples (1895); trad'l themes (portraits, still lifes and landscapes); underlying shapes of objects; some areas flat, disjointed perception; inspired Picasso

• Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec- At the Moulin Rouge (1892/5); favorite nightspot; himself and cousin are in background with friends; his work is personal and emotional; harsh indoor lighting; influenced by Japonisme in use of exaggerated color, caricature-like, outlines, masklike faces
• Georges Seurat- A Sunday on La Grande Jatte 1884/6); depicts people from all classes in leisure; created "pointillism"- tiny dots of color, based on new ideas about the science of color
• Paul Gauguin- Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897/8); depicts Tahitian life/culture; represents cycle of life (personal, done prior to suicide attempt); known for mastery of color, emotive power

• inspired by arts and crafts movement- focus on decorative arts/architecture
• Victor Horta- Staircase in the Van Eetvelde House, Brussels, Belgium (1895/8); banister (wrought iron) looks like vines; exotic forest
• Antoni Gaudi- Casa Mila, Barcelona, Spain (1905/10); wrought-iron railings like Moorish architecture and cavelike entrances
• Louis Comfort Tiffany- Lotus table lamp (1905/10); American known for stained-glass and lamps; innovative incorporation of electricity

• Gustave Eiffel- Eiffel Tower (1887/9); built to be an entrance for 1889 Internat'l Exhibition in Paris; symbol of Fr technological prowess; gov't decides a radio antenna and TV transmission tower
• Henry Hobson Richardson- Marshall Field Wholesale Store, Chicago, IL (1885/7); granite and brownstone masonry; seen as advanced b/c of he simplicity; inspired American style
• Louis Sullivan:
• Guaranty Building, Bufalo, NY (1894/6); credited with inventing the skyscraper- confidence/prosperity of the US; steel w/ decorative terra-cotta blocks
• Carson Pirie, Scott Building, Chicago, IL (1899-1904); dep't store considered advanced b/c of large widows and clear geometry; "form follow function"; Art Nouveau ornamentation at the base he considered functional b/c it would bring in customers

• Josh Nash- Royal Pavilion (1826); in Brighton, England; built for King George IV; exoticism inspired by Mughal architecture in India; interior heavily influenced by Chinese & Indian styles
• Joseph Paxton- Crystal Palace (1851); built for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London; he was a horticulturalist who designed greenhouses; used prefabricated iron sections; reassembled on the outskirts of London but was destroyed by fire in 1936
• Henri Labrouste- Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve (1845-51); designed library in Renaissance style; spine of cast iron columns
• Richard Morris Hunt- The Breakers, Newport, Rhode Island (1892/5); Gilded Age Mansion; built for Cornelius Vanderbilt II as a vacation home; used Beaux Arts style (Gr and Roman architecture with Renaissance ideas)

• Jean-Antoine Houdon: portrait sculptor (very accurate/insightful); Voltaire statue
• Washington statue while staying at Mount Vernon commissioned by VA leg.
• holds 13 fasces (rods)- symbol for Roman authority & 13 states.

Bernini Baroque

Neoclassical Architecture

Houdon Neoclassical

Prehistoric Art

Napoleon

• Jefferson's Monticello- reminiscent of Villa Rotunda and Chiswick House; front portico with Doric columns and an octagonal dome.
• VA state capitol: designed by Jefferson after studying a Temple at Nimes in France; Ionic portico, pediment; known as the federal style

1789: French Rev.

Jacques-Louis David: France

Reasons unknown

member of Nat'l Convention, supported Reign of Terror, voted to execute Louis XIV,

1794: arrested for supporting Robespierre/jailed 5 mos.

• Commissioned works of art to glorify his image (propaganda)
• Antoine-Jean Gros and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
• Antonio Canova: fav sculptor; created statues of Napoleon, best known for portrait of Napoleon's sister Pauline Borghese as Venus
• Also commissioned monuments inspired by Imperial Rome
• Doric column with reliefs depicting his victories
• Arc de Triomphe- Arch of Titus in Rome

• took to leading philosophers ideas about how art should educate and uplift the public,
• The Oath of the Horatti: 1785; warring cities of Rome and Alba decided to end conflict in a mortal combat (Roman Horatii vs. Alban Curatii); painting depicts the Horatii brothers swearing to fight to their father; theme of patriotic duty vs. family love.
• The Death of Marat: this friend of David's was stabbed in the bath by a royalist; placed him in a heroic despite a disfiguring skin disease; portrayed as a martyr serving the state.
• After accepting the position of First Painter of the Empire from Napoleon, he painted Napoleon at the Pass of St. Bernard- depicted him as a hero, a modern Charlemagne.
• The Coronation of Napoleon: captures the drama of the event; includes portrait of himself as a witness.

• Paleolithic Sculpture-statuettes of women (archaeologists deem them Venus; little proof they worshiped the goddess)

Venus of Willendorf

Ancient Near East

Mesopotamian

• Ziggurats- "mountains of the gods"; built to reach up to their gods and goddesses; mud brick
• priests climbed the steps every day with sacrifices---regular people had statuettes holding libation cups with eyes wide open

Tower of Babel, Babylon

Imperial Monuments

• Standard of Ur- archaeologist Leonard

Woolley excavated a Sumerian cemetery and found this; four-sided rectangular box with all classes on the sides (horizontal bands-registers)

• reads bottom to top; makes use of hierarchical scale

• Paleolithic Cave Paintings- first discovered in northern Spain in 1879; primary subjects include animals (bison, deer, horses) with a lot of movement

horned helmet symbolizes divinity

• Victory Stele of Naram-Sin was commissioned in order to commemorate the win over the Lullubi

• Stele of Hammurabi- depicts the 282 laws and, at the top, Hammurabi with god Shamsh of justice-->symbolized his god-given authority

Arch of Titan

Ancient Near East Cont'd

Chauvet Cave, France

• Assyrian Lamassu- 14 ft, winged five-legged bulls w/ human heads; to protect them from humans and evil spirits
• Nebuchadnezzar built Babylon's Hanging Garden. Also in the city was the Ishtar Gate:
• Ishtar-goddess of love, fertility, and war.
• gate led to route to ziggurat
• dragons-->Marduk (patron god of Babylon)
• bulls with blue hair-->Adad (storm god)
• lions-->Ishtar
• Persian king Darius I and his son Xerxes built a citadel in Persepolis with an audience hall (apadama)

Ancient Greece: Geometric

Ishtar Gate

Statue of Trajan

Ancient Egyptian Art

citadel in Persepolis

continual rebirth; dead person's soul (ka)

• After the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization in 1200 B.C. Greece went into a 400 year Dark Ages.
• Style featured triangle, concentric circles, and checkerboard shapes
• seen in kraters or mixing bowls--> grave marker or Athenian leader (~740 B.C.)

• Romans believed that they were unmatched in wealth and outfitted the city with statues, temples, etc. --> used art as propaganda
• 81 CE: Emperor Domitian commissioned the Arc of Titus in honor of his brother's conquest of Jerusalem
• two relief panels- Roman soldiers holding candelabrum; Titus in chariot
• Emperor Trajan had statue made in honor of his defeat on Dacians (89-117 CE); put on top of 125 ft. column--> his remains inside
• 1587: Pope Sixtus V replaced statue with Statue of Saint Peter; most bronze statues melted at this time for value
• Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius- survived b/c thought it was Constantine; sitting atop Spanish steed; enemy cowers; extended right hand to suggest mercy
• inspired more steed statues in Ren.

Ra

Neolithic Art

About 10,000-2,000 B.C.

• Many works of art were for the pharaoh's well being.
• Palette of Narmer- 3100 B.C., commemorate Narmer's unification of Upper and Lower Egypt
• each side is divided into registers (horizontal bands) with Narmer at the top.
• Human form=eyes, torso in frontal view with legs, head, arms in profile

Marcus Aurelius

• Clearly drawn humans as the subjects
• At Catal Hoyuk, first landscape painting
• Stonehenge- stones as high as 17 ft. and weighing as much as 50 tons
• henge- circle of huge stones
• Middle Ages- thought that it was magic by Merlin
• Modern Times- believe it was a solar calendar constructed in phases starting 4000 years ago
• Inspired modern artists- Nancy Holt's Sun Tunnels

Catal Hoyuk

Stonehenge, England

Ancient Greece: Archaic

650-480 BC

Aegean

Sun Tunnels, Utah

Middle Kingdom

Old Kingdom

New Kingdom

Pylon Temple

mastaba

• Rulers buried in rock-cut tombs hollowed out of the faces of cliffs
• Paintings depicting daily life
• Faced hard times with political and military challenges
• portrayed in depictions of pharaohs

• Mastaba-flat-topped, single-story, trapezoidal tombs for the royal ka erected atop a burial chamber containing a sarcophagus
• Imhotep (architect) created the Stepped Pyramid by placing six matabas on top of each other; made of limestone
• If the royal cadaver was damged, a sculpture could take its place-designed to last forever
• Khafre made of diorite with no exposed limbs
• less important officials are more realistic in make

• Hathepsut's funerary temple at Deir el-Bahri (designed by Senenmut)
• 200+ sculpture of the queen [male/female attributes]
• Akhenaton- overturned traditions (new religion- Aton; changed capital; new Amarna style)
• Amarna style-naturalistic, sensual, intimate
• Sunken Relief- outlines are carved and the figure is modeled within them.
• Tutankhamen's gold burial mask; he was one of the best known rulers of Egypt; in 1922 his tomb was discovered
• Pylon temples- built to honor the gods, two pylons (gateways with sloping walls) led to a hypostyle hall (columns supported the roof)

Hathepsut

New York Kouros

Senusret III

Khafre

Stature of Akhenaton

Seated Scribe

• Kouros- young, standing male nude
• New York Kouros- erect, rigid, stands freely, nude
• Kore- draped, young woman
• Peplos Kore- freestanding, left arm was extended (motion), Archaic smile
• Greek temples- small, house statue, cella (walled inner sanctuary in which deity was placed), only priests allowed
• Doric (Gr mainland & S Italy)- surrounded by colonnade or peristyle (row of columns)
• Ionic (Aegean islands & Asia Minor)- lighter and more elegant

entablure

• 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE: 3 cultures (Cycladic, Minoan, and Helladic)

Peplos Kore

Aqueducts

Lascaux Cave, France

Doric

Archaic Cont'd

Exelius

• Pottery was the first major industry
• Black figure (625 B.C.)- red clay painted with liquefied clay (slip), black color; detailed with a stylus (Exelius)
• Red figure (6th c.)- background painted with black glaze and the unpainted areas were the design (Andokides Painter created technique) (Euphronius)
• Almost all ancient Greek paintings have been lost

Ionic

Euphronius

Cycladic Art

Mycenae

Hellenistic Movement

Minoan

Altar of Zeus

Seated Boxer

Late Classical Period

• As the Greeks settled in the Persian Empire, the blend of cultures led to Hellenism.
• Pergamom (in now Turkey) strived to emulate Athens and collected/recreated Greek art/buildings.
• Altar of Zeus- center of civic ceremonial activity; ionic columns, marble frieze; lower portion portrays the Olympic gods battling giants (gigantomachy).
• Athena attacking a giant Alkyoneus, who is clinging to his mother Gaia.
• Hellenistic sculptures portray realistic (aging) people in order to elicit an emotional response.
• Laocoon- 3 sculptors; Virgil's account of a Trojan War battle. Laocoon urged the Trojans to reject the Trojan horse--> Poseidon killed him. Michelangelo oversaw its restoration in the 16th c.
• Seated Boxer- battered veteran w/ broken teeth and scars that has to accept his fate; bronze statue.

• Cyclades are a group of islands around Delos
• Tons of white marble--> 2700-2200 BCE sculptors used it to make sculptures inches to 4 ft.
• nude women, men with instruments (harps)
• Pure line & abstract
• resemble works of Brancusi and Modigliani

• Homer's Iliad talks of Agamemnon and the Mycenae
• The had a rich life of splendor
• Heinrich Schliemann excavated
• Large, protected citadel (cyclopean walls b/c the Greeks thought that cyclops built them)
• Lion's Gate is the entrance
• Corbelling- technique, stones laid so each course is slightly beyond the one below it-->irregular arch
• Relieving triangle- (above lintel), reduces the weight pressing down on the lintel
• HS dug and found graves filled with treasure (death mask- repousse, hammer metal from back leaving raises in the front)
• Treasury of Atreus- tholos (beehive shaped tomb); Atreus was Agamemnon's father but it is unknown if he was buried there; 43 ft. high; looted centuries before

Lion's Gate

Laocoon

• Archaeologist Arthur Evans excavated Knossos, Crete, and deemed his vast discoveries Minoan (2000-1400 BCE)
• King Minos ruled with a Minotaur in a labyrinth in his palace.
• Fresco- paints on plaster (wall/ceiling) while it is still damp.
• portray lively people in ruffled gowns and jewelry dancing or other sports (social equality)
• Many flowers, animals, nature. No soldiers or battles.
• Pottery and sculpture displaying nautical nature.
• Natural disasters and the Mycenaeans ended the time of Knossos.

Ancient Greece: Classical

Funerary Mask

Athena attack

• 432 B.C. Peloponnesian War lasted 27 yrs. b/w Athens and Sparta
• Art shows more human emotions, reflecting the war
• Praxiteles sold a statue of a nude Aphrodite, controversial.
• Lysippos made Apoxyomenos (The Scraper), taller and lighter than previous sculptures; different angles
• A grave stele creates an emotional link b/w the spectator and the work

Treasury of Atreus

Macedonia

Brancusi

Modigliani

• Philip II-ruthless king that transformed the peasants into a professional army
• conquered the Athenians and Thebons in 338 B.C. (looked down on Macedon b/c of a lack of artists, philosopher, etc.)
• nobles had floors with mosaics.
• Philip II assassinated in 336; remains found in 1977
• Alexander the Great became king and conquered the entire Persian empire before dying in 323.
• Persian King Darius III declared revenge at Battle of Issus

• Proud of their practical, inventive additions
• Used gravity to carry water from laked to cities
• Roman baths
• Pont du Gard-constructed during Augustus's reign; 30 mile long aqueduct build below ground or on a low wall & built a bridge to get around a gorge along Gard river
• three rows of true arches; over 150 feet

Battle of Issus

Reproduction of Philoxenos of Eretria's work; found in Pompeii

Classical Architecture

• 480 B.C. King Xerxes (Persia) invaded Greece. The next year, the Athenians defeated the Persians
• Persian War-death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.)= the Classical Period
• contrapposto- relaxed, natural stance
• Doryphoros by Polykleitos, proportionate; ideal human figure
• head is 1/7 of the height and the shoulders are 1/4 of the height
• chiastic- spear-bearing left arm balances with the right leg and the right relaxed arm balances the bent left leg

Doryphoros

Kritios Boy

Temple of Athena Nike

• After the Persian War, Pericles undertook the task to build the Parthenon (army of artisans, 15 years)
• Temple dedicated to Athena; her statue was 38 feet made of ivory and gold, facing the east. Doric columns surround the outer perimeter (x=2y+1)
• Temple of Athena Nike, designed by Kallikrates, first built in the Ionic order.
• Erectheion, desined to hold several sacred objects; Porch of Maidens- six caryatids (female figures that are supporting columns).

Pompeii

Roman

Riace Warriors

• August 29, 79 CE, Mount Vesuvius erupted.
• Nobles wanted to be known as sober men of state; luxuries found in Pompeii show that they favor materialism as well.
• high stone walls kept the city out; no green lawns, front porches, etc
• atrium- court in homes; full of paintings and floor mosaics
• compluvium- opening in the roof of the atrium to let in light, air, rainwater (collected in a basin, impluvium)
• peristyle- open-air garden; off the atrium; full of fruit trees; gardens; fountains
• Frescoes- water-based pigments applied to damp plaster; depict portraits, mythology, land/cityscapes, inanimate objects
• Three Pompeian perspectives:
• intuitive perspective- far objects are smaller than nearer ones
• atmospheric perspective- muting colors and blurring objects as they are farther away
• single-point linear perspective- creates depth and distance by drawing lines that converge at one point
• *still life from Herculaneum shows these techniques- white paint=light; intuitive perspective with the peaches.

Erectheion- Porch of Maidens

Augustus

Etruscan

Parthenon

Pantheon

Decline

Colosseum

Constantine the Great

• 44 B.C.: Ides of March; Caesar assassination--> civil war-->Octavian won (defeated Mark Antony & Cleopatra)
• Octavian given the name August ("supreme ruler")
• Pax Romana- "Roman peace"
• trade; commissioned public works, prosperous
• portraits of Augustus were used to unite the empire under a commanding, divine leader
• Statue of Augustus from Primaporta
• contrapposto, appears youthful (40 years), larger than life
• Cupid at his right; family traced back to him (divine descent); portrays good family lineage
• Art used as propaganda
• Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)- senate commissioned; brought peace and prosperity; with priests, magistrates, imperial family on one side and Mother Earth, plants, fruit, flowers on the other side.

• Temple of Portunus (75 BC.)- combines Greek & Etruscan elements; accessible only at front; Ionic columns support an Ionic frieze
• Concrete- made from lime mortar, volcanic sand, water, and small stones
• voussoirs- wedge-shaped bricks or stones to make an arch
• tunnel vault or barrel row of round arches
• groin vault- intersection of two barrel vaults of equal size at right angles
• Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae- largest domed space in the ancient world, but Romans could build better domes b/c of concrete.
• Busts- used death masks to create these portraits; carefully/proudly showed signs of age, wrinkles, sags, and warts.
• Veristic (superrealistic)- rigid representation of truth and reality is essential;
• Gravitas- honored strength, power, and steadiness more than beauty, grace, and wit.

• 80 CE t opened with 50,000 people in the sports arena
• largest building in ancient world; 76 numbered entrances
• amphitheater- "double theater"; two theaters put together
• three levels of arches lead to a top story
• 1st story- Tuscan or Doric columns
• 2nd & 3rd- Ionic and Corinthian columns
• none of the columns support the building's weight

• Emperor Hadrian, 118-125 CE
• dedicated to all (pan) and gods (theoi)
• enter through bronze doors into a column-lined porch with a symmetrical dome overhead (represents the vault of the heavens protecting the earth)
• 29 foot wide oculus in the center that let in rain and sun (represented Jupiter's all-seeing eye)
• lessened the thickness at the oculus and decrated with coffers (recessed panels)

• 235-284 CE saw a chaotic period of 20 emperors
• Diocletian seized the throne, defended the borders, and revived the economy
• tetrarchy- rule by four; two emperors each with an heir (2 Augusti, 2 Caesars)
• marked a decline in political leadership

• 305 CE: Diocletian abdicated--> rivalries for the throne began (one being Constantine)
• 312 CE: Constantine conquered Rome over Maxentius; saw a fiery cross in the sky with "By this sign you shall conquer."
• had XP (Christos) on all of the army's shields
• gratuitously, he passed the Edict of Milan (no persecution of Christians)
• Arch of Constantine erected to honor his victories and his predecessors'
• some sculptors cut off his predecessors' heads for his (to associate him with the Pax Romana)
• 30 foot tall statue of him on his throne erected but only the head has survived (unblemished, young)

Fall of Roman Empire

• 330 CE: Constantine founded "New Rome" at Byzantium--> renamed Constantinople
• 410 CE: Vandals (East Germanic tribe) invaded
• 476 CE: Western Empire collapsed.

Greek

Roman

Portraits of the tetrarchs, 305 CE, Venice

natural hillsides

concrete

plays

gladiator fights

• Central Italy (1000-100 B.C.); peaked in 5th c.; absorbed into the Roman Empire.
• influenced by Greek Archaic style--> terracotta statues ("baked clay")
• Statue of Apulu (Apollo)- was on a temple; styled hair/smile; clothed
• bronze sculptures portray improbably skill
• Capitoline Wolf- portrayal of the she-wolf than nursed Romulus & Remus (supposed founders of Rome)
• two infants are additions by Antonio Pallaiuolo during Ren.
• Buried in underground tombs embellished with vases from Greece and painting about "life" events.
• Aristocrats put their remains in terracotta sarcophagi- couple reclining on top, gesturing lively; stop at waist; Archaic style

• Showed the family lineage and were proudly paraded about.

Temple of Portunus

Tunnel Vault

Statue of Apulu

Treasury of Atreus

Voussoirs

Groin Vault

Capitoline Wolf

Art History