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President George Washington (1788-1796) and members of his Cabinet worked to create a new government and establish trust between US citizens and their representatives. Although they intended to promote unity, some issues, particularly those addressed in Alexander Hamilton's plans, promoted sectionalism.

As a fledgling nation, the United States struggled to determine its role in foreign conflicts. Although Washington's adherence to neutrality proved to be beneficial to the nation's economic development, at the time, Washington's isolationism and Jay's Treaty promoted sectionalist tones.

At the start of the nineteenth century, the United States faced both foreign conflicts, especially with France, and increasing domestic sectionalism. Although the Jeffersonian Revolution was relatively peaceful, contraversial developments in the judicial system increased tensions.

Prior to the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, sectionalism intensified in the United States. Domestic concerns about controlling treasonous political leaders were sparked due to the actions of Aaron Burr. Then, conflict with Britain and France culminated in the War of 1812, which angered the High-Federalists.

Although the period of time following the War of 1812 was called the Era of Good Feelings, sectional tensions were aggravated by representatives' attempts to improve the country's economy and maintaing the congressional balance between slave and free states.

During Jackson's presidency, sectionalist tensions were exacerbated by the installment of the spoils system in the federal government, conflict surrounding protective tariffs, and disagreements over the constitutionality of the national bank. Jackson stood by his personal principles even though this led him to isolate some voter

populations.

From the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, Americans became obsessed with the concept of settling the west. Their expansion into Texas led to the Mexican-American War. Meanwhile, Texas struggled for statehood as US Congressmen debated slavocracy, which contributed to sectional tensions in the naiton.

Julianna Rennie

Sectionalism in Antebellum America

Era of "Good" Feelings

Launching the Nation

Renewing the Sectional Struggle

Adams and Jefferson

Manifest Destiny and Texas Revolution/Statehood

American System

Marshall Court

Funding at Par

Bank of the United States

Hamilton also supported the establishment of a national bank that would serve to store money, lend to businesses, and print and stabalize naitonal currency. This proposition was highly contested, as many strict interpreters of the Constitution, including Thomas Jefferson, believed that because the Constitution did not explicitly permit such a bank, it should be forbidden. Hamilton, who held a loose interpretation of the Constitution, responded that this power was provided by the "Necessary and Proper," or elastic, clause in the Constitution. Although the bank was created by Congress in 1791, Jeffersonians continued to oppose its existence.

From 1819 to 1824, John Marshall was the chief justice of the United States Supreme Court. Marshall, a Federalist, left a lasting legacy by making rulings in several landmark court cases which made the federal government stronger.

  • McCulloch vs. Maryland: Marshall ruled that the Bank of the United States is constitutional through the "implied powers" outlined in the Constitution.
  • Cohens vs. Virginia: Marshall ruled that the United States Supreme Court can review state supreme court holdings.
  • Gibbons vs. Ogden: Marshall ruled that the regulation of interstate commerce belongs to the federal government.

These rulings were contraversial because Democratic-Republicans in

the south favored giving more rights to individual states'

governments while Federalists in the north favored giving

more power to the federal government.

The first step in Hamilton's plan was for the central government to assume all national, state, and foreign debts. While this showed unity among Americans, it also led to sectionalism as some states with small debts were unhappy about having to help pay off other states' debts. One such state, Virgina, was appeased by the Assumption Clause, which outlined that the District of Colombia, home of the country's new capital, would be placed on the Potomac River, increasing

trade and prosperity for Virginians.

After the War of 1812, Speaker of the House Henry Clay proposed a series of initiatives to strengthen the United States's economy known as the American System. This plan had three parts, each of which increased sectional tension:

  • Protective Tariff (Madison's Tariff of 1816): This initiative was intended to force British consumers to look for other international markets to show our economic independence from Britain. However, because most southerners depended on foreign markets, the tariff forced them to purchase finished goods from the North at whatever price northern merchants set. John C. Calhoun, a southerner who beleived that only the north was benefitting from the tariff, called it the Tariff of Abominations.
  • Internal Improvements: During the War of 1812, Americans lacked a way to ship goods and weapons because the country's infrastructure was extremely poor. Clay's plan hoped to remedy this problem by allocating money from the tariff to building canals and roads. Southerners were upset by this because the tariff, which hurt them, was being used to pay for improvements in northern territory, which did not benefit them.
  • Resurrect National Bank: By expanding the powers of the national

bank. Clay hoped to strengthen the national currency and provide

easy and abundant credit to influence citizens to expand

westward. The credit offered, however, was too easy to

attain and led to the Panic of 1819, the first major

financial crisis in American history.

Creation of the American Navy

Judicial Review

Missouri Compromise

Tariffs and Taxes

After the signing of Jay's Treaty, France was enraged by the United States's seeming alliance with Britain, which conflicted with the Franco-American Treaty of 1778. In turn, French impressment of American ships became common, creating the tone of a French-American cold war. In response to increasing tensions between the two nations, President John Adams, an advocate of neutrality, sent delegates to France in hope of avoiding war. In this interaction, which was later deemed the XYZ Affair, French officials rudely denied the Americans permission to meet with Talleryrand, the French foreign minister, and demanded a huge sum of money in the form of a $12 million loan and $250,000 bribe. Adams was outraged by the French officials' treatment of the delegates and, in turn, created the American Navy. Although nationalism increased following the XYZ Affair due to Americans' pride at the delegates not cooperating with the Frenchmen's demands, sectionalism also abounded in response to increased taxes which were needed to pay for the development of the country's new navy. Democratic-Republicans were not pleased with the war efforts because most of the financial expense for the preparations

fell on them. Conversely, Federalists were supportive of the military

development and urged Congress to declare war on France.

The 1848 presidential election was defined by the candidates' opinions about slavery. The fact that both of the candidates refrained from making a definitive statement led to the creation of the Free Soil Party that supported the abolition of slavery in all states. In an attempt to spread slavocracy, American delegates proposed the Ostend Manifesto in which they offered $120 million for Cuba. However, northerners highly opposed this issue, which ended up dying anyways because of the creation of the Kansas Nebraska Act. The Compromise of 1800 was also a highly contested topic because it outlined stricter slave laws, which northerners regarded as a violation of the sixth amendment and, in turn, responded to with the creation of personal liberty laws.

Lastly, the addition of new territories in the west

tipped the balance of free and slave states

in favor of free states, which gave

them an advantage in Congress.

Before John Adams completed his first term as president, he passed the Judiciary Act of 1801 to maintain the Federalist agenda. This legislation created sixteen new circuit court justice positions. The people who were appointed to these positions, known as midnight judges, were all Federalists. Jeffersonians were angered by this blatant misuse of federal power to benefit a single party rather than the nation as a whole. Later, the issue reached its climax when William Marbury, a midnight judge, sued James Madison, the secretary of state, for not delivering his commision. The case went to the Supreme Court where John Marshall, a Federalist, dismissed the case. However, in his explanation of his ruling he proposed the principle of judicial review, which directly contradicted Jefferson's States' Rights Theory

outlined in the Kentucky resolutions. This procedure would give the

Supreme Court the final say in instances where the constitutionality of

an action or legislation was in question. This increased sectionalism

because Federalists supported giving more power to the federal

government, while Democratic-Republicans believed that

more power should be vested in individual states'

governments.

Gadsden Purchase

Going to Texas

Next, Hamilton proposed that the United States instate a protective tariff and an excise tax on corn. Both of these initiatives increased sectionalism because they seemed to help northern industries and hurt southern ones. The protective tariff encouraged the purchase of American-made goods in the North while the excise tax forced southern distillers to pay more. In 1794, sectional tensions reached a climax in the Whiskey Rebellion, a series of protests led by farmers who believed that they were being singled out to repay government debt and that they should not be forced to pay taxes if they did not have representation in Congress. In response, Washington assembled a militia to quell the rebellion. His reaction seemed harsh to many antifederalists and furthered tensions between Americans who favored strong state governments and those who favored a strong central one.

During the Era of Good Feelings, many states were formed in the

territory gained from the Louisiana Purchase. When Missouri applied for statehood, it was skipped because it had filed to be a slave state but was surrounded by free states, and its admittance would meant that there would be more slave states than free states. Later, Illinois was admitted as a free state and Missouri as a slave state. In addition, the Tallmadge Amendment, which states that slavery would be outlawed in Missouri and that children born to slave parents in the state would be gradually emancipated, was passed by the House. Representatives of Missouri were very unhappy with this decision because they did not think it was fair to abolish slavery in the state simply because of its geographical location. The agreement that they came to was proposed by Henry Clay in the form of the Missouri Compromise, which stated that Missouri would be admitted as a slave state, Maine would be admitted as a free state, and all states north of 36'30' in the future would be free.

Tensions concerning slavery were exacerbated by this conflict as

northerners who beleived in abolishing slavery conflicted

with southerners who supported the institution of

slavery.

From 1803-1853, Americans flocked westward in response to the spread of the concept of the Manifest Destiny, or the idea that Americans had the God-given right to move west. Unfortunately, the expansion of settled area in the west was accompanied by the spread of slavery, which was extremely contraversial. Slavocracy was a pressing issue in the US Congress, as many northerners were upset about the idea that the institution of slavery would spread westward, while southerners refused to leave their slaves in the original colonies.

In 1853, James Gadsden purchased a section of land from Mexico for $10 million in order to create an ideal route to build a transcontinental American railroad from New Orleans to the Pacific Ocean. This transaction was highly contraversial because $10 million seemed like a huge amount of money to pay for such a small piece of land. Southerners supported the Gadsden Purchase becasue the railroad that would be built on the land would help the economy in southern states. While northerners acknowledged the benefits of having an efficient means of transportation from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, they argued against the purchase because they wanted this asset to be in the north and, in turn, benefit the northern economy.

Alien and Sedition Acts

In order to increase federal power, in 1778, the Congress passed a series of laws called the Alien and Sedition Acts which reduced the number of legal pro-Jeffersonian voters and limited the rights of expression of those who disagreed with Adams and his Federalist supporters. The Alien Acts raised the requirements for American citizenship from five to fourteen years and gave the president the power to deport any immigrant who poses a threat to the country. The Sedition Acts limited the writings and speech of people who criticized the government and set fines and jail time for those who violated the law. While Federalists supported this legislation because it furthered their mission to create a stronger central government, Democratic-Republicans regarded it as a violation of the citizens' rights outlined in the first amendment and a

complete misuse of federal power.

Texas Statehood

After the Texas Revolution, the state applied to the US Congress for statehood. However, it was denied admission because of the many contraversial issues that arose, including the extension of slavery, cotton profits in the south, Texas's relationship with foreign markets, and the possibility of war with Mexico. Northerners opposed its statehood because of the posibility of the expansion of slavery, while southerners supported Texas's statehood and the legalization of slavery in the state. Simultaneously, everyone feared the implications of a war with Texas.

The Slavery Controversy

The War of 1812

Jacksonian Democracy

Foreign Entanglements

Abolitionist efforts abounded in antebellum America. Opponents of slavery protested in the form of literature, rebellions, and escape efforts, such as Harriet Tubman's underground railroad. Some of the most notable abolitionist authors include Harriet Beecher Stowe (Uncle Tom's Cabin), David Walker (Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World), William Lloyd Garrison (The Liberator), and Frederick Douglass (Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass). Meanwhile, Sojourner Truth traveled the country speaking about abolition and women's rights and Nat Turner, a preacher emboldened by the writings of David Walker, led a rebellion which caused white government officials to instate stricter slave codes and national security. Furthermore, slaveowners made several attempts to justify the institution of slavery by claiming that they spread religion to their

slaves, slaves were happy and safe on plantations, and the

southern economy would be crippled without them.

Sectionalism concering slavery became very prevalent and

was a major issue which separated the north and

south preceding and during the Civil War.

War of 1812

Aaron Burr Conspiracies

The 12th Congress, which began their session in 1818, were dubbed "hot-heads" because of their promotion of war efforts and the forceful removal of Native American tribes. Jingoism, or extreme patriotism and the defense of the military at all costs, became a widespread ideal in the United States at this time. This fervor lead to the declaration of war in 1812 against Britain. Although the war helped the United States assert its military power and prove the importance of American goods in the world economy, many northerners were against the conflict because it disrupted trade. A group of High-Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut in 1814 and created a list of five grievances about the War of 1812: shippers should be compensated for lost trade; a 2/3 vote from Congress should be required prior to instating an embargo, creating a new state, or declaring war; presidents should be limited to one term; the 3/5 coompromise should be abolished; and successive presidents should not be allowed to be from the same state.

However, by the time the convention was over the Treaty of Ghent

had already been signed, making the Federalists' demands

seem petty.

Aaron Burr, a Federalist, contributed to the Americans' widespread anxiety about secession and foreign attack. After being dismissed from the Cabinet during Jefferson's second term, Burr advocated for secession of the New England states so that the High-Federalists could have complete control of the region. Meanwhile, he plotted with Spanish General James Wilkinson in hopes of splitting the land west from the land east of the Mississippi River. Then, he would have expanded the High-Federalist regime into the Spanish territory. His treasonous acts enraged southerners who did not support the Federalists' secession as well as certain northerners, including Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton revealed Burr's plan, which led to his

being captured and tried for treason. Chief Justice John Marshall

found Burr to be not guilty because the prosecution lacked

evidence of treasonous acts. Although his verdict was

constitutional, many Jeffersonians claimed that the

decision was biased because Marshall, too,

was a Federalist.

Spoils System

Bank Wars

Jay's Treaty

During Andrew Jackson's presidency, the spoils system, or the practice of rewarding political supporters with public office, was introduced to the federal government on a large scale. Jackson and many of his fellow Democrats defended the spoils system by arguing that "Every man is as good as his neighbor." In other words, he believed that because governmnet was supposed to be run for the people and by the people, the common man should be qualified to quickly learn and then execute his duties as a public offcial. This system seemed much more democratic than the breeding of an aristocratic ruling class. Tensions that arose between those who were advanced because of the spoils system and those who regarded it as unjust lead Americans to be more loyal to their party, cementing the existence of the two-party system and increasing sectional tension.

President Jackson's distrust of monopolistic banking and large businesses contributed to his disdain for the Bank of the United States. He believed private bankers, who were responsible for printing paper money, had too much power over the nation's economy. Althought the national bank was considered an asset to many because it acted as a source of good credit and stability, Jackson saw the bank as loyal to its elite circle of investors rather than the people. When Henry Clay pushed the bank's recharter through Congress in 1832, Jackson vetoed it, declaring its existence to be unconstitutional. This decision alienated Jackson's supporters in the Northeast, but appealed to the common people of the South and West (especially the West as they had been taken advantage

of the national bank when it caused the Panic of 1819).

French Revolution

Embargo Act of 1807

  • US pays off pre-revolutionary debts to the British
  • British evacuate American posts
  • British pay for damages from impressments

In an attempt to stop the increasingly frequent British impressment of American ships, Washington sent John Jay to Europe to negotiate with the British. The product of the meetings, Jay's Treaty, was extremely contraversial. To the Democratic-Republicans, it seemed as if the US had surrendered and that the implications of the concessions made would only hurt southerners. While rich Federalist shippers collected reimbursements from the British for impressments, the poor southerners would have to repay pre-Revolutionary debts. This treaty also compromised Washington's popularity.

The French Revolution, which began as a peaceful attempt to increase individuals' liberties manifested into a dividing force throughout the Western hemisphere. In the United States, sectionalism increased as Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans supported the populist mobocracy and Hamiltonian Federalists supported the French government, fearful that the American aristocracy would be challenged.

Ever since the end of direct military conflict in Europe in 1805, British and French forces had been taking advantage of American ships by barring them entry to certain ports and impressing American ships at sea. In an attempt to limit this mistreatment of American sailors and vessels, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act of 1807, which banned exports to foreign countries. He hoped this legislation would maintain neutrality while forcing European dependence on American goods. However, the law became very contraversial when northern shippers began to lose money from decreased sales. Northern Federalists even contributed to the tensions which lead to the Hartford Convention, a meeting during which High-Federalists

discussed their grievances about the US

government, in 1815.

South Carolina Exposition

Washington's Neutrality

Throughout John Quincy Adams's presidency and later during Jackson's presidency, middle and northern states advocated for higher protective tariffs, which reduced American manufacturers' competition with European producers of finished goods. As the Industrial Revolution spread, the wool and textile industries in the United States fluorished, and rising prices maintained by the tariffs meant rising profits for manufacturers. However, southerners were displeased by the north's expanding financial success during their relative economic stagnancy. This lead to increasing sectional tension as southerners dubbed the protective tariff to be the "Black Tariff" or "Tariff of Abominations." John C. Calhoun, the vice president at the time, went so far as to write a pamphlet called The South Carolina Exposition that protested against the tariffs and declared that states should have the right to nullify the tariff according to the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions.

When conflict arose between France and England, Americans were again divided about who to support. Democratic-Republicans advocated for honoring the Franco-American Treaty agreed upon in 1778, while Federalists supported the British due to their heritage and respect for the British government. Despite these pressures from citizens, Washington announced a foreign policy of neutrality. With the help of advice from Hamilton, Washington decided that the United States's population, military capabilities, and economy was too small for the nation to get involved in a conflct of this magnitude without serious repercussions. Although the isolationist principles in this document became tradition in American policy and were avidly supported by the pro-British Federalists at the time, the pro-French Jeffersonians were outraged by Washington's decision to ignore his legal obligation to assist France and the fact that he announced the plan without consulting Congress.

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