8000 BCE to c. 600 BCE

River Valley Civilization

• Location in river valleys - Rivers provided water for crops, as well as the easiest form of transportation. All four river valleys of the earliest civilizations had very fertile soil called loess, or alluvial soil carried and deposited as river water traveled downstream.
• Complex irrigation systems - Controlling the flow of the rivers was a major issue for all of the civilizations, and all of them channeled the water for agricultural use through irrigation systems.
• Development of legal codes - The most famous set of laws was Hammurabi's Code, but all wrote and implemented laws as political organization and long-distance trade grew more complex.
• Use of money - Long distance trade made the barter system (trading one type of good for another) impractical, so all the civilizations developed some form of money for economic exchanges.
• Elaborate art forms and/or written literature - These took different forms, but all civilizations showed advancements in these areas. For example, Egyptians built pyramids and concentrated on decorate arts, and Mesopotamians wrote complex stories like the Epic of Gilgamesh.
• More formal scientific knowledge, numbering systems, and calendars - Developments in these areas varied from civilization to civilization, but all formalized knowledge in at least some of these areas.
• Intensification of social inequality - In all river valley civilizations, gender inequality grew, and all practiced some form of slavery. Slaves were often captives in war or hereditary, and they were used for household work, public building projects, and agricultural production.

• In addition to the river valley civilizations, early civilizations appeared in Mesoamerica and South America, and though they shared many characteristics above, they did not develop along river valleys. The Olmecs appeared by about 1200 BCE in what is now Mexico. Their trade and culture influenced other parts of Central America and shaped the development of later civilizations in the area. Between 1800 and 1200 BCE, an elaborate culture developed in the Andes area of South America. The Chavin people in particular spread widely throughout the area from their center in present-day Peru.

• All of the civilizations varied greatly, as the chart below (next page) reflects. For the exam, you only need to be able to accurately compare two of the civilizations.

Trade Expansion

• China: silk cloth; roads constructed; Han-Silk Road trading increased; Iron Age; modernized army (iron, weapons, etc.); paper, accurate sun dials/calendars, use of metals, ox-drawn plow
• Western Europe: Internal trade mostly; trade&cultural diffusion by boat; wine and olive products for grain in Greece; barter system replaced w/ money system;Hellenism; roman culture spread; rds connected to silk rd.
• Eastern Europe: not much contact with the outside world; traded very little
• South asia: Indian Ocean Trade; Mauryans: promoted trade; rds. connected w/ Silk Rd.; Buddhist missionaries sent out; Guptas: “Arabic” # system, inoculation of smallpox, sterilization during surgery, astronomy.
• Middle East: Great traders in Mesopotamia; traded with Egypt some; Silk Road Trade; trans-Saharan trade; adopted Sumerian beliefs
• Africa: East Africa linked to Southern China through Indian Ocean Trade; Trans-Saharan Trade: use of camel/camel saddle; exchange of salt and palm oil; N. Africa supplied Rome with olives, wheat, and wild animals; Egyptian culture spread.

Summary

Foundations (8000 BCE - 600 CE) spans the largest number of years. It begins with an important Marker Event - the Neolithic Revolution - and ends after the fall of three major classical civilizations - Rome in the Mediterranean region, Han China, and the Gupta Empire of India. Social structure - Most people traveled in small bands, and authority was based on family relationships. Men took leadership roles, but women were highly valued for their gathering skills. Labor was generally divided based on gender, with men as hunters and women as gatherers. However, status differences between men and women were generally not wide, with relative gender equality apparently characterizing their group life.

Beliefs - Archaeological evidence suggests that prehistoric people were guided by their beliefs in spirits and sacred places. Their cave drawings and traces of their cultural objects indicate that they believed in an afterlife, although they probably did not practice polytheism, or a belief in many gods. Instead, polydaemonism, or the belief in many spirits (not specific gods), probably describes their religion more accurately. Bushes, rocks, trees, plants, or streams could be inhabited by these spirits, who often appeared to communicate with humans.

Empires Form

• States/empires emerged in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Egypt. Generally, these states were led by rulers who were thought to be divine.
• The more favorably suited states had greater access to resources and were therefore able to conquer and expand.

Religion = Code of law

Social Stratification

• India. Set into place the caste system (brahmins/priests --> warriors --> traders --> servents/peasants). Taught that all creatures had souls and through karma, you would be reincarnated into something in the afterlife depending on your actions in this world. Later grew into Hinduism

Judaism-

• Hebrews are the chosen people of the god YHWH. This was the first monotheistic religion. Had the ten commandments from the Torah

Zoroastrianism-

• Also monotheistic, with the god being Ahura Mazda. The Avesta sculptures said that if you lead a virtous life filled with good deeds, you would be rewarded in the afterlife. This evolved into Judeo-Christian doctrines.

• Society was egalitarian, meaning everyone was considered equal and there was little social stratification.
• Social stratification was a result of specialization of labor. This also led to patriarchalism( society dominated by male heads)

Expansion

• Local to regional to transregional.
• During the classical era the major civilizations were not entirely isolated from one another. Migrations continued, and trade increased, diffusing technologies, ideas, and goods from civilization centers to more parts of the world. However, the process was slow. Chinese inventions such as paper had not yet reached societies outside East Asia by the end of the classical era. The Western Hemisphere was not yet in contact with the Eastern Hemisphere. Nevertheless, a great deal of cultural diffusion did take place, and larger areas of the world were in contact with one another than in previous eras.

Stone to Metallurgy

Metallurgy - The first metal used was copper that could be hammered into shapes for tools and jewelry. No heat was required, but someone discovered that heating separated the metal from its ores improved the malleability and overall quality of the product. Early tools such as knives, axes, hoes, and weapons were made of copper.

8000 BCE to c. 600 BCE

Agricultural Revolution

By about 5000 BCE agriculture had become well established in several areas. In southwest Asia, wheat and barley were raised, and sheep and goats were domesticated. In southeast Asia, yams, peas, and early forms of rice were grown, and pigs, oxen, and chickens were kept. In the Americas, corn (maize), squash, and beans were staples of the diet, and in South America, potatoes were also grown. Domesticated animals were far less important in the Americas than they were elsewhere, but South Americans did domesticate llamas and alpacas.

As agriculture began to take hold in various parts of the world, the population grew rapidly. For example, world population in 3000 BCE was probably about 14 million humans, but by 500 BCE, the total had risen to about 100 million.

Technological and Environmental Transformations