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I. Introduction

Socialization

Interaction with others.

We learn

Basic interaction rituals, hand shaking, kiss,

The socially accepted ways to achieve various goals, food, clothing shelter, social (respect, love, help of others). Re-created them, adapted them to our particular circumstances.

Result of socialization

Socialization makes us like most other members of society in important ways,

Also produces our individuality.

The sense of self and the capacity to engage in self-oriented acts.

The developmental perspective

unfolding of the child’s own abilities.

The Social learning perspective

the child’s acquisition of cognitive and behavioral skills in INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT.

the child acquires considerable information about the world.

They also learn group identity

  • The shared meanings of the groups in which they are reared (Shibutani, 1961)
  • Subcultures, and societies their distinctiveness.
  • These takes place universally.

The adaptive nature of socialization

  • Having acquired these skills, children can perpetuate the meanings that distinguish their social groups and even add to or modify these meanings by introducing innovations of their own.

Importance of both developmental processes and social learning

  • Developmental age of the child determines which acts the child can perform.
  • all cultures have adapted to these developmental limitations
  • but is not sufficient (case of Isabelle)
  • need both nature and nurture

Social learning perspective

  • the process of learning (the role of reinforcement in the acquisition of behavior)

The interpretive perspective (Corsaro & Fingerson, 2003)

  • interaction itself with groups in the society they are involved in and understand, learn, recreated shared meanings of something these groups created.

Symbolic interaction theory

  • child’s task as the discovery of the meanings common to the social group.
  • the child’s participation in cultural routines, which are recurrent and predictable

activities that are basic to day-to-day social life.

  • Greeting rituals
  • Levi’s case “ the most creative post-game hand slap.

Development is a process of interpretive reproduction.

  • As they become more proficient in communicating and
  • more knowledgeable about the meanings shared in the family, culture, groups.
  • Through interaction, they acquire and reproduce, and modify the culture.
  • Children do not just imitate but create culture.

Socialization is organized according to the

sequence of roles that newcomers to the society ordinarily pass through.

  • Familiar roles, educational institutions
  • These are age linked roles.
  • Socialization outcomes are sought for those who occupy each role.

Social structure designates the persons or organizations responsible for producing desired outcomes ( family, schools)

It considers socialization as a

product of group life.

Family; Mother

Is a mother necessary?

Does it matter who responds to and establishes a caring relationship with the infant?

Must there be a single principal caregiver in infancy and childhood for effective socialization to occur?

Psychoanalytic theory an intimate emotional relationship between infant and caregiver (almost always the mother at the time Freud wrote)

is essential to healthy personality development.

Empirical studies done

1. Spitz (1945, 1946)

Location: Infants institution

Subjects: 45, under 18 months old infants

6 caregivers (nurses)

Situation: the nurses met the infants’ basic biological needs, had limited contact, little evidence of emotional ties

Outcome: within 1 year, underdeveloped from an average of 124 to an average of 72.

Within 2 years, one-third had died, 9 had left, and the 21 the remained in the

institution were severely retarded.

2. Fries & Pollak, 2004

Location: orphanages for

Subjects: an average of 16 months following birth

Situation; at age 4 and half, had significant difficulty matching facial expressions of emotion with stories

Ainsworth, 1979

Infants need a secure attachment : produces a sense of security and provides stimulation –to develop the interpersonal and cognitive skills needed for proper growth.

Provides sense of self.

Mother’s role in infants is essential.

Its mother is essential to normal child development (Bowlby, 1965)

Other potential caregivers may not be adequate substitutes.

Mother’s sensitive to the child’s needs and responsive to his or her distress in the first year of life, the child is more likely to develop a secure attachment (Demo & Cox, 2001).

Father’s role is needed from at later ages.

What effects do maternal employment and child care have on children?

Studies found conflicting outcomes, negative, positive, no difference (Perry-Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2001)

1.MacEwen & Barling, 1991

Not due to employment but because of other variables that affects the child.) the amount of conflict between maternal and work roles

2.Berger, Brooks-Gunn, Paxson, & Waldfogel, 2008); study of Fragile Families and Child Well-being

Subjects; white, Black and Hispanic families

Situation: the relationship between maternal employment during the child’s first year and several outcomes at 3 years of age.

Results: maternal employment was associated with lower vocabulary scores in White, but not Black or Hispanic families, and with

higher levels of behavior problems in Hispanic families.

3.Nomaguchi, 2006: it is due to fewer positive mother-child interactions, and less reading with parents at ages 2 and 4.

Dozens of studies.

A 68 meta analysis: 1) tests of achievement, 2) tests of intellectual functioning, 3) grades, and 4) teacher ratings of cognitive competence (Goldberg, prause, Lucas-Thompson, & Himsel, 2008).

Results: no difference found between working (part and full time) or non working mothers, Part time workers positively associated with all four outcomes, more positive effects for girls.

Adolescents, maternal employment is associated with positive outcomes.

The effects of child care depends on the type, quality and amount of care.

Effects of Divorce.

Half of all marriages end in divorce;

about one-half of these divorces involve children under the age of 18 years.

Effects: changes in the life of a child a change in family structure, a change in residence, a change in the family’s financial resources, and a change of schools.

Effects on academic success, psychological adjustment, self –esteem, and long-term health (Amato, 2001)

A few studies; positive consequences for some children. (especially daughters and custodial mothers (Arditti, 1999)

  • Increased divorce changes the view of divorce as a one- time crisis. (Jekielek, 1998)
  • But the gap in well-being between children of divorced parents and children of intact couples increases or remains the same. (Cherlin, Chase-Lansdale, & McRae, 1998)
  • It goes down to generations (Amato & Cheadle, 2005)

Adults whose parents divorced when they were 7 to 16 gained more negative effects on their lives than the adults whose parents’ divorced when they were older (Demo& Acock, 1998; Garfinkel & McLanahan, 1986)

  • Completed less schooling
  • Earned higher scores on an index of psychological symptoms
  • Women were more likely to drink heavily as adults.
  • Higher rates of early and nonmarital pregnancy ‘
  • Reduced educational attainment
  • Early parenthood and arriage result in a higher rate of poverty
  • Authoritative parenting –characterized by high levels of warmth combined with control –

benefits children greater achievement in

school and positive relations with other adults

and peers.

  • Authoritarian styles, including physical punishment, and permissive styles are more likely to be associated with poor adjustment in childhood (Demo & Conx, 2001)

  • Analyses suggest that economic circumstances, specifically lower wages and unemployment, are related to differences in paternal engagement and monitoring,

Process of socialization

A process wherein a person learns what response to make in a situation in order to obtain a positive reinforcement or avoid a negative reinforcement. The person’s behavior is instrumental in the sense that it determines whether he or she is rewarded or punished.

Shaping (Skinner, 1953, 1957) refers to learning in which an agent initially reinforces any behavior that remotely resembles the desired response and later requires increasing correspondence between the learner’s behavior and the desired response before providing reinforcement.

In socialization, the degree of similarity between desired and observed responses required by the agent depends in part on the learner’s past performance.

Socialization Through the Life Course

Agents of Childhood Socialization

The Impact of Social Structure.

Peer

The family consists of persons who differ in status or power, whereas the peer group is composed of a status equals.

Membership in a particular family is ascribed, whereas peer interactions are voluntary. (Gecas, 1990)

Exercising choice over whom they relate to.

Such choices contributes to the child’s sense of social competence.

Peer groups in early and especially middle childhood are usually homogeneous in sex and age.

Peer associations make a major contribution to the development of the child’s identity.

Children actively resist adult culture through peer interaction and talk (Kyratizis 2004)

Although peer culture tends to be concerned with the present, it plays an important role in preparing children and adolescents for role transitions.

Effects of Maternal Employment.

Socialization needs social interaction

School

School is the child’s first experience with formal and public

\evaluation of performance.

Social comparison has an important influence on the

behavior of schoolchildren. A consistent performance

will affect a child’s image of self as a student.

Child Rearing in a Diverse Society.

Homework

The interpretive perspective

For week 4

1. read chapter 3 of Social Psychology

Summarize parts first four parts of the chapter within 2 pages

Complete the test in a box 3.1 and a box 3.2

2. Analyze yourself applying factors that are introduced in chapter 2 ( Mother’s and father’s role, Family back ground, gender role, society you grow, etc. )

Midterm assignment

1. Mini research of a person

Research Goal.

 Investigate people around you or students you teach nowadays who may have experienced family trouble or peer pressure problems.

 Analyze behaviors of these people and how their behaviors are associated with what they have experienced.

 Try to match their behaviors with the theories and research findings we read from the book.

Methodology.

Observation, document investigation or analysis, Interview, Literature analysis.

Length of the assignment

About 3000 words

website: kangnamjoon.weebly.com

Instrumental Conditioning

Observational Learning

Reinforcement Schedules.

Self- Reinforcement and

Self-Efficacy.

The acquisition of behavior based on the observation of another person’s behavior and of its consequences for that person (Shaw & Constanzo, 1982).

The major advantage of modeling is its greater efficiency compared with trial-and –error learning.

Does observational learning lead directly to the performance of the learned behavior? No.

But children may learn through observation many associations between situational characteristics and adult behavior but they may not perform these behaviors until they occupy adult roles and find themselves in such situations.

An important influence is the consequences experienced by the model following the model’s performance of the behavior. (Nursery school children watched a film)

Bandura’s bobo doll experiment

Punishment

(corporal and psychological)

  • The fixed – intervals schedule involves reinforcing the first correct response after a specified period has elapsed. (midterm, final). many study only just before an exam.

  • The variable-interval schedule involves reinforcing the first correct response after a variable period. (pop quizzes) sts cannot predict when to occur.

  • The fixed –ratio schedule provides a reinforcement following a specified number of correct, non-reinforced responses. (paying a worker on a piece rate)

  • The variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after several nonrewarded responses, with the number of responses between reinforcements varying. (gambler)

Children learn many through instrumental learning.

Some of these will remain extrinsically motivated. they are dependent on whether someone else will reward appropriate behavior or punish inappropriate ones.

Other activities becomes intrinsically motivated performed in order to achieve an internal state that the individual finds rewarding (Deci, 1975)

Is related to Self – Reinforcement.

Is related to self- efficacy; successful experiences with an activity over time create a sense of competence at the activity (Bandura, 1982b).

The greater one’s sense of self-efficacy, the more effort one will expend at a task and the greater one’s persistence in the face of difficulty.

  • Corporal punishment is Widely used in the USA (94 %) of the parents of 3 and 4 year olds and psychological techniques are used by 85% of the parents of children of all ages.

  • Does punishment work?
  • It is effective in some circumstances but not in other.
  • Timing. Punishment is most effective when it occurs

in close proximity to the behavior.

  • The effectiveness may be limited to the situation in which it is given. Only when the person is present.
  • Reason; accompanied by a reasons

  • What about the long-term consequences of punishment?
  • Corporal punishment is associated with subsequent antisocial behavior by children (in study of 6 – to 9- year old children, the more often the mother reported spanking the child, the higher the level of the child’s antisocial behavior (on a six-item scale) 2 years later (Straus, Sugarman, & Giles-Sims, 1997).
  • Psychological punishment may be associated with problem behaviors (such as running away, being suspended from school ) in adolescence.
  • Punishment should focus on the behavior and not the child, and should be balanced by praise and rewards.

The Social Learning perspective

Successful socialization

  • Physical or natural realities.
  • Language to communicate their needs to others
  • The meanings their caregivers associate with various actions.
  • To identify the kinds of persons encountered in their immediate environment.
  • What behaviors they can expect of people, as well as others’ expectations for their own behavior.

Outcomes of Socialization

Gender role

Moral Development

The gender assigned to the infant has a major influence on the socialization and life experiences of that child

Male: competent, competitive, logical able to make decisions easily, ambitious.

Female: warmth and expressiveness, gentle, sensitive, tactful (Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972).

Fathers and mothers differ in the way they interact with infants.

Mother: child’s physical and emotional needs (Baumrind, 1980)

Father: rough and tumble, physically stimulating activity (Walters & Walters, 1980)

By age 2, the child’s gender identity conception of self as make or female is firmly established. Toys, dress, plays, games etc.

Nature in understanding children’s development.

Parents are an important influence on the learning of gender role – the behavioral expectations associated with one’s gender.

Children learn gender-appropriate behaviors by observing their parents’ interaction.

Children also learn by interacting with parents, who reward behavior consistent with gender roles and punish behavior inconsistent with these roles.

A woman may be more likely intimate relationships with men if her relationship with her father was of this type (Appleton, 1981).

The specific behaviors and characteristics that the child is taught depend partly on the gender role expectations held by the parents.

Gender role definitions vary by culture.

Schools also teach gender roles.

A major influence on gender role socialization is the mass media.

Knowledge of Social Rules.

Beliefs about which behaviors are acceptable and which are unacceptable for specific persons in specific situations are termed norms.

Learning language trains the child to conform to linguistic norms and serves as a model for the learning of other norms.

Gradually, through instrumental and observational learning, the child learns the generality of the relationship between conformity to norms and the ability to interact smoothly with others and achieve one’s own goals.

What influences which norms children will learn?

  • Vary by family and culture.
  • By position of the family within the society.
  • Parent’s expectation of the child vary by age of child and different from children of other family.
  • The outcome is a young person who is both similar to most others from the same social background and unique in certain ways. (Levi’s case)

Difference between expectation of peers and parents

1.Children bring different norms from their separate families and , therefore introduce new expectations. Through peers they aware the other ways of norms.

2.Manh parental expectations are oriented toward socializing the child for adult roles, peers encourage impulsive, spontaneous behavior rather than behavior directed toward long-term goals.

School is a third major socializing agent.

Resistance sometimes includes physical attacks on school personnel.

Child Developmental Perspective

Work Orientations

The human child undergoes a process of maturation. He or she grows physically, develops motor skills in a relatively uniform sequence, and begins to engage in various social behaviors at about the same age as most other children.

Some theorists view socialization as largely dependent on processes of physical and psychological maturation, which are biologically determined (Gesell and Ilg, 1943)

Physical neurological maturation

Recognition of, responsiveness to, and orientation toward adults follow a uniform developmental pattern.

The ability to interact with others depends in part on the development of visual and auditory discrimination.

Occupation is a major influence on the distribution of economic and other resources.

Adults in different occupations should have different orientations toward work, and these orientations should influence how they socialize their children.

Extensive research conducted on the differences between social classes in the values transmitted through socialization (Kohn, 1969)

Subjects: fathers of 3- to 15 – year-old children

Indicated that the emphasis on self-direction and reliance on internal standards increases as social class increases.

Middle class occupations High level in self direction

Working class occupations low in self direction.

Do the differences in the value parents place on self-direction influence the kinds of activities in which they encourage their children to participate?

A study of 460 adolescents and their mothers (Morgan, Alwin, & Griffin, 1979) examined how maternal emphasis on self-direction influence their children to participate?

their beliefs are likely to produce those traits on their children

by age of 16 many adolescents have expectations about jobs they will hold as adults.

And were influenced by both parents and teachers; these expectations, in conjunction with the level of education completed, were associated with adult occupational attainment at ages 23, 33, and 42 (Brown, Sessions, & Taylor, 2004)

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