Journal

Journal

D.H.I.Dom 4

Jillian Scammell

My personal journey

23.9.15

25.9.15

Difficulties of Assessment

According to Easterbrooks & Baker (2002) the three main difficulties with assessing language of children who are deaf or hard of hearing are as follows:

• the lack of skilled examiners

• confusion over the use of deaf norms or hearing norms

• the lack of easily administered materials (p 107)

In relation to the first identified problem Easterbrooks & Baker recommend having a sound knowledge of the language issues pertaining to deaf and hard of hearing students, to be aware of the different modes which may be used, be able to converse in the mode of the student and be aware of what other, if any, disorders may be present also (p 107).

In the present climate of educationalists working with deaf and hard of hearing students there is a shortage of skilled practitioners, particularly those who can converse fluently in New Zealand Sign Language.

Many of the assessments are undertaken by the teacher in the mainstream against the hearing norms and without often any knowledge of the issues with language experienced by our deaf children. A teacher of the deaf is only assigned a few hours with a deaf child and can influence a teacher as far as they are possible and as far as a teacher is willing or able to take any special recommendations on board. Because assessment is on-going and informal as well as formal it is often the hearing norms that our mainstreamed children are measured against in this setting.

As a fledgling Teacher of the Deaf my proficiency with the formal assessments is raw and it will take some time to become skilled at administering formal assessments and analysing the findings in a way that can hone in on a student`s areas of weakness, requiring further development. Knowing what to look for whilst observing a student is another skill which I`m sure becomes honed with practice.

Another consideration which comes to mind is the aspect of Deaf culture and whether the student is empowered by the process or assessment. Are we doing it in a Deaf-friendly way? I had an eleven year old boy undergo a formal reading assessment at which he tried really hard to answer everything in as much detail as possible and afterwards he asked me “I did pass didn`t I?”. I believe establishing a good relationship and strong rapport with a student necessary before trailing in with one assessment after another, including follow-up in a way that gives the student hope.

Memory function in learning

Learning my role as an RTD this year has involved a lot of learning around assessment. Routinely many formal assessments take place in the first term to ascertain where a student is at in his/her oral language, auditory skills, language processing, reading and writing.

It was overwhelming as I wa exposed to one format after another and instructed how to evaluate the findings together with my lead teacher.

Together with the study this year the reason for the varied assessments are falling into place, and I still see a place for informal observation, which is what I relied on heavily in the beginning.

I think one of the challenges in the beginning was whilst getting a feel for the classroom and building a relationship with the student and the teacher I was having to intervene in a formal capacity whilst gathering all of the information for the formal assessments.

I`ve enjoyed settling into the classroom and working alongside the students within their curriculum activities, mindfully applying activities to address their needs as assessed early on and am aware that assessment is ongoing and of an informal nature also.

- How could you use science lessons, including hands-on activities, as a way of teaching reading and writing to deaf students

Recent studies are overturning old beliefs abouit the differences in intellect between deaf and hearing children

in favour of recognising the different ways in which they learn rather than the differences in ability.

Marscark & Hauser (2012) inform that according to latest findings both deaf and hearing children probably store the same amount of information in long-term memory but access their shorter term memory in different ways. Deaf children who use sign language tend toward strength in visual-spatial memory but show less ability to recall sequentially and the opposite is generally true with hearing and oral deaf children (p86).

For some chuilden both visual-spatial memory and sequential memory are developed and the authors purport that surely having both faculties in use with learning must be an advantage. They go on to say that if learning activities took into account the differences in the way children store and use memory and taught both visually and orally there is more chance that our students will take on board the information and experiences and be able to use it to further their on-going learning . This may give deaf students a fighting chance to be equal with their hearing peers in the learning and recall stakes.

https://www.google.co.nz/search?q=assessment+for+learning&safe=strict&biw=1366&bih=599&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMIjYnalf2MyAIVBJuUCh07XwR8#imgrc=m13VwjErUNAuZM%3A

One of the challenges facing deaf students of science is gaining access to the material. Many of the literacy levels of deaf students are well below that of their hearing peers and the content well above their cmprehension and filled with topic-specific vocabulary.

The framework, offered by Richardson & Morgan ( 1997) for ensuring deaf students have access to subject content consists of three steps: preparation, assistance, reflection.

Preparation involves such things as matching the level of reading with the student, building background knowledge and topic-specific vocabulary and building knowledge of the type of text contained in the content.

Assistance means to ensure the student has good comprehension of the content by techniques such as questioning , facilitating discussion, summarizing and other meta-cognitive strategies.

Reflection involves reviewing the material, summarising, thinking about it critically and encouraging further thought around the subject.

All of the techniques suggested here can help to build langugae and literacy

Assessments

23.9.15.

mathematics= problem solving

Domain 4

Describe why prior experiences impact on a student's ability to learn mathematics

Evidence shows that there is no difference in cognitive abilities between deaf and hearing students yet deaf students lag behind their hearing peers in mathematics. Pagliaro (2006) attributes this to factors other than their deafness. Three of the factors, she names, as contributing to this negative indicator include a lack of experiential learning, language difficulties and ineffectual teaching (p 33).

Many deaf students come to the classroom with language delays and therefore will likely have difficulty in grasping the specific vocabulary and concepts underlying maths equations.

They too have often missed out on the incidental learning along with other experiences, which occur in everyday situations and serves to build a knowledge base upon which other skills can be developed.

Often teachers have either or both, limited knowledge or low expectations of the deaf learners and teach lower-cognitive skills, rather than engaging their brains in activities such as problem-solving which will involve analysing and evaluating among other skills, leading to a greater grasp of the concepts underlying the equations.

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Curriculum & Assessent

Informal vs Formal Assessment

According to Easterbrooks & Baker (2002) assessments are appropriate when they are used for informing instructional teaching: to assess whether the student is in the right learning environment, that they have the right approach, which individual goals are appropriate and how effective the teacher is (101).

Problems associated with language assessments and deaf children are many, the authors suggest, including whether a norm-referenced test is tested against normal hearing or normal deaf children and other implications such as a lack of skilled assessors, how complicated assessments can be and whether a student has enough vocabulary to understand the requirements of an assessment (p 107).

Further to this in order to assess the language of deaf and hard of hearing children, assessors need to be aware of specific issues relating to their diagnosis, the different communication modes being used, the impact of other disorders in combination with hearing difficulties and whether the assessor can communicate in the children`s preferred mode (130).

The pros and cons of informal assessment, as outlined by Shirmer (2002), include relevant assessment, rooted in an authentic teaching programme but will only be as good as the teacher is skilled in assessing (204). The Analytical Writing Rubric, as an example, highlights a varied approach to writing analysis in order to give a comprehensive overall picture of skills the student has across different areas and therefore can probably offer a more accurate picture of a student`s progress than one formal assessment may be able to (p 207).

The author does remind the reader however that formal and standardised assessment has its place too and that apart from being easy to administer are reliable in a way that is not as dependent on the skill or bias of the teacher, for example (p208). Used in conjunction with informal tests she suggests gives the best of both worlds and even the formal ones can be used furthermore in an informal way by “probing” into the strengths and weaknesses which become evident and using the information to inform further instructional teaching. Very rarely are standardised tests geared toward the deaf –norm however and administering only these would at the least be disheartening and contra-indicitive of the students` real skill levels (p 208).

Furthermore Shirmer advises to gauge the students` attitudes and interest toward the material, keeping in mind that these too will influence the results of asessments and in conclusion she reminds the reader to keep the assessments, both formal and informal , ongoing to keep up to date with where the students` strengths lie and their progress on any given day (p 2160.

https://www.google.co.nz/search?q=math+solutions&safe=strict&biw=1366&bih=643&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&sqi=2&pjf=1&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMIo7-QvIWhyAIVCayUCh2WjQG5&dpr=1#imgrc=7m-I5iIDs_D2eM%3A

these would inlude

• taking into account that for some students NZSL is their first language
• vocabulary, phonology, syntax and prior knowledge; all skills required for reading and writing development are likely delayed in the lapse of time the chuild had no access to language
• learning one langugae (incl NZSL) will provide a basis for learning a second (spoken or written) language
• the grammatical structure of NZSl is different to that of English and therefore extra support will be needed with things like tenses, prepositions, pronouns etc.
• that cochlear implants and hearing aids do not replace normal hearing and therefore visual supports will help
• Deaf is a culture

Describe at least five things that a general education PE teacher can do to help make PE more accessible to deaf students.

As a teacher of the Deaf going into the mainstream one of the challenges I believe I will face is being able to convey to the classroom teacher specific challenges commonly experienced by students who are deaf or hard of hearing

A teacher can advise deaf (all) students of extracurricular activities, gauge their interest and encourage participation.

A teacher of deaf students can include physical education goals in an Individual Education Plan (IEP)

- How could you use a variety of strategies to engage deaf students in talking about science

A teacher could monitor a deaf student`s involvement in extracurricular activities to gauge enjoyment and/or difficulties they may encounter and support/ encourage them to continue/ increase participation.

A teacher might meet with parents of deaf students and inform them of the benefits of their child being involved in extracurricular activities; and encourage them to support with communication, transport and other issues.

Guidelines for Teachers

A teacher of deaf students could meet with the P.E. teacher and inform them of aspects relating to their participation in sport and other activites eg special attention to balance/ ways to communicate.

Rather than encouraging a passive stance for deaf students learning about science, Lang (2006) offers ways from diffferent findings in research, to get students actively engaged in their learning. He recommends along with delivering content knowledge to include activity-based strategies for learning, along with the teacher being ready to answer questions (p58).

Concept maps, Know, Want, Learn forms, Venn diagrams, webbing, main ideas tables are all activities which encourage active particiaption of the students, autonomy and self-direction (p 60).

In short, combining graphic organisers, questioning technique and offering easier access to the text will enhance deaf learners grasp of the concepts.

Lang offers the use of technology as a means for getting the message across but warns that technology of its own accord can also be recieived passively and therefore the same principles of active participation need be applied.

Bandura (1986), Lang shares, gives the most weight to self-belief/self-esteem as the influencer of success and so Lang recommends introducing deaf role models into the programme as one of the catalyst toward that end. (p 62).

(Stewart 2001, p 174)

- How could you integrate the teaching of a social studies topic or theme into other subject matter?

https://www.google.co.nz/search?q=physical+activity&safe=strict&biw=1366&bih=599&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMI3cq3jbmjyAIVYiqmCh2LvAKk#imgdii=bSkI4GbBYMBiyM%3A%3BbSkI4GbBYMBiyM%3A%3BsMnXUy-Al_Xe7M%3A&imgrc=bSkI4GbBYMBiyM%3A

Speech Assessment= Speech Training

27.9.15

In previous readings we have learnt that the acquisition of receptive and productive speech is a two-way street between parent and child (Stewart & Clark 2003) ; that the intuitive exchange is based on both feedback and feed-forward. In the same way that a mother assesses and explicitly teaches her child to speak, offering them the next level of language, judged by their present ability and following a natural progression, Marshcark (2007)purports that speech training and speech assessment go hand-in-hand (p87).

A child`s acquisition of language is not static, but rather influenced by the environment, he offers and therefore needs to be monitored regularly. Statistics are poor, indicating a high level of unintelligible speech in deaf children and the previous percentage of about 25% of those who have developed intelligible speech has increased only to around the 60-65% with the introduction of cochlear implants ( p87)therefore producing intelligible speech is an on-going challenge for deaf children. According to Marscark, individual speech sounds are not always easily deciphered nor integrated into words and syllables and as the language of a child grows speech adjustment needs to be on-going to ensure that recognisable speech sounds are being produced.

Articulation Assessment:

Phonetic and Phonological information about the students ability

to produce individual speech sounds in initial, final and medial positions is elicited by presenting pictures which are named by the student. Additional information is added from listening to running speech or from an electronic recording of speech.

Whilst this may usually be the work of the speech-language therapist I can see the value of using it as a teacher of the deaf in conjunction with setting and working toward oral language goals. As with any formal testing I believe the additional information imperative in gaining a broader working knowledge of the students` articulation and further I believe ongoing running records will help keep up to date with progress and identification of needs assessment.

Oral Language Sample: Origin unknown.

This is usually a sample of at least 50 utterances.

It is expected that these will include examples of the student’s spoken language used in a narrative retelling of some event, a description on a person place or thing, directions on how to get somewhere, instructions on how to do or make something and will include the use of questions. The sample is often recorded electronically for later transcription although it may include hand written records of language recorded at discrete times.

Whilst I have focused on two oral language assessments, these may well be redundant in the case of a full user of sign language. In our present climate the possibility of choosing to use only sign as a means of communication is slim and with the implementation of the cochlear implant, less likely and written language may be the preferred second choice. Having said that, the majority of children diagnosed as being deaf or hard of hearing have a focus on oral language as well as other modes of communication. Oral language samples provide an example of a student`s skills in the spoken word in a variety of contexts and can provide information for the purpose of making goals and planning a programme of oral language development. I believe catching the incidental language of the student`s a valuable addition to the formal oral language samples which are collected as part of an RTD`s job, as they may be more natural and life-relevant .

http://masseyuniversity.mrooms.net/mod/book/view.php?id=3740&chapterid=7912

In the U.S.A. there are ten key concepts built into the Social Studies Curriculum which are as follows:

• culture
• time, continuity & change
• people, places & environments
• individual development & identity
• individuals, groups & institutions
• power, authority & governance
• production, distribution & consumption
• science, technology & society
• global connections
• civic ideals & practices

The Social Studies Curriculum, Martin (2006).

http://masseyuniversity.mrooms.net/file.php/88/2013_-_Domain_4/New_files_-_2013/Schirmer_Chapter_Six.pdf

From this comprehensive list many other curriculum areas are covered; science, economics, politics, geography and so on. Therefore an opportunity to overlap multi-disciplines exists within this scope and aspects of social studies can be included in other curriculum areas.

- Distinguish between a traditional, global-interactive, and integrated approach to Deaf studies and determine which approach would be most suitable for a particular student or classroom.

https://www.google.co.nz/search?q=speech+sounds&safe=strict&biw=1366&bih=643&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMItanGqOuWyAIVpOimCh2etwfn

A traditional approach to Deaf studies is to focus on the deaf person and all aspects of the culture as pertaining to their deafness and as of different to hearing..

A global-interactive focus includes those with varying degrees of deafness and considers all the modes of communication and issues related to the different casestudies.

An integrated approach, on the other hand does not consider Deaf studies as a seperate curriculum subject but rather can be spread across the curriculum, integrating into other subjects and programmes (Stewart, 2001).

Why might you consider infusing a study of

deaf people into the social studies curriculum?

Why do content area teachers still need to be “concerned” about the literacy levels of their students.?

http://findicons.com/icon/85760/globe

One of my students is deaf, uses hearing aids, is from a Tongan family, with a German grandmother who lives with them and is in a mainstream classroom.

A multicultural approach would seem the most appropriate way to teach culture to her in an inclusive setting which incorporates and values the various and multi-facted cultural heritages of all the students. Singling her out as different has never worked for her so weaving the different aspects of Deaf culture into her other curriculum areas would suit her best in the integrated approach that Stewart (2001) talks of.

http://masseyuniversity.mrooms.net/file.php/88/2013_-_Domain_4/New_files_-_2013/Deaf_Learners_Teaching_about_Deaf_Culture-1.pdf

In order to grasp the underlying concepts of maths equations a student needs a sound literacy base and Pagliaro (2006) purports that integration of the subjects can work to support the same skills in different settings. For example understanding the concepts of problem-solving in a good maths class can expand vocabulary, reading and literacy and vice versa.

Without a sound literacy base much of the material is inaccessible for Deaf or hard of hearing students in subjects such as science or social studies and even the visual support of captioning is invalid if the vocabulary or content is beyond theireach of their reading and comprehension levels.

Evidence shows no difference in cognitive abilities between deaf and hearing learners but language delays will impact on learning success in all curriculum areas. Another factor Paglaro warns is that low expectation of deaf students will lead to lower levels of achievement and can form a negative cycle of low expectation leading to low achievement, leading to lower expectation and so on (Pagliaro p36)..

Taking an integrated approach and seeing all curriculum areas an an opportunity to include literacy development as well as other skills will benefit deaf students and have positive spin-offs.

As Martin (2006) points out, "Deaf have a rich data of culture and traditions" (p73) and Deaf study could become part of a Social Studies topic by learning about the history, myths, beliefs, traditions and culture. This could be a comparative study or a small group reaearch project or there could be a moral dilemma or Human Rights issues intertwined. Social studies is a discipline, so says Bragaw & Hartoonian (1998), studying people and the society in which they live, in a past, present and future context in order to make personal and political decisions (p 73). In the context of this, studying Deaf people as a cultural group is entirely relevant.