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References Too!

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References

Ormrod, J. E. (2014). Educational psychology:

Developing learners (8th edition). Boston: Pearson Education Inc.

Talking to the Text. 2001. Retrieved July 3rd, 2014

from https://2sc.rossieronline.usc.edu/mod/assignment/view.php?id=58544

Lesson Outline

  • Begin with an informal formative assessment
  • Class time review of a poem

Class Time Poetry Review

  • Learning objective presentation
  • Examples of concepts related to inferring meaning
  • Present mnemonic of reading strategy
  • Allow students to engage in presented strategy

Examples and Non-examples

Students are given examples of main ideas and examples that do not meet the criteria for a main idea

Giving BOTH examples and nonexamples allows students to construct for themselves a a schema for a main idea. Students are more likely to retain information in long term memory when the information is organized into schema because it reduces the strain on cognitive load - a single schema can be learned instead of all its separate parts

Group Discussion

(Ormrod, 2014)

Highlighting characteristics present or absent in these examples allows the students to see how the concept is evident in the examples. They can begin categorizing information and creating their own schemas.

But why is this important?

Learning Objective Presentation

(Ormrod, 2014)

  • Group Discussion
  • Self explanation exercise

-Helps maintain students' attention on important information they need to selectively learn

-Helps engage working memory by gaining attention and allowing the information to pass through from the sensory register

Following practice using the reading strategy on their own, students could engage in small group discussions with their peers and engage in a self-explanation exercise with a group

How does this relate to

cognitive learning theory?

Practice

Learning objectives are stated clearly before the lesson begins so students can direct their attention to the most important things to learn.

(Ormrod, 2014)

Elaboration

The students would then be give a short poem to practice the explained reading strategy on their own.

This step is important for solidifying information in long term memory.

Mnemonics

  • Whole Group Discussion

M N E M O N I C S

By using a simple key phrase or word, memory can be cued to retrieve procedural knowledge. In this example, each letter in the word SCAR stands for the first letter in each step of a deliberate and careful reading of poetry.

Students can be given a sheet with difficult questions regarding the meaning of the poem and how the poem relates to their own lives. Students could discuss these questions with their group and elaborate in order to explain their views to their peers in a coherent way and write their group answers on their sheet.

  • Visual representation of detail organization

A mnemonic for a reading strategy could be provided to remember the steps students should go through to ascribe meaning to a poem.

This helps students learn procedural knowledge associated with poetry analysis.

"An eM on E"

For example: A mnemonic that has a superimposed meaning, SCAR

S can the poem

C ircle key details

A nalyze those details

R eread the poem

By engaging in group discussion and trying to relate their ideas to their peers, students may need to draw on prior knowledge.

The hybrid activity of discussion and writing promotes critical thinking and encourages students to delve further into their ideas with their classmates and to convey those ideas clearly in a written form.

  • Determine extent of learning with summative assessment

Whole Group Discussion

Lesson Redesign

The class could then reconvene for a class discussion of the meaning of the poem.

How else can this lesson be presented using the principles of cognitive theory?

Possible Learning Objective

During this portion of the class, the teacher could construct a visual for the brainstorming of ideas related to the meaning of the poem.

Author

Main Character

Using a visual tool can promote memory storage as well as help organize information in a graphic form.

(Ormrod, 2014)

Using a brainstorming tool or a concept map can also show students how different parts of a poem contribute meaning, from the setting to the chosen diction. This in turn helps to extend their understanding of the concept of a main idea.

Setting

Students will be able to distinguish the meaning of any given poem using supporting evidence from the text

Assessments

Plot

Tone

Words Used

Main Concepts and Procedural Knowledge used to achieve learning objective

Informal Formative

Formal Summative

  • Concept of a main idea

  • Using details to construct meaning from text

  • How to determine main ideas from details

  • How to use text as evidence to support claim

Allows the teacher to assess the extent of the student's overall understanding

This type of assessment allows the student to demonstrate their prior knowledge and allows the teacher to be previously aware of possible misconceptions before the lesson begins.

A possible formal assessment could be to have students write an essay about the meaning of the poem using text to support their argument.

Shows cognitive theory: Students are tested on meaningful learning and understanding of concepts rather than rote learning or measuring a specific behavior. Rather, there is an opportunity for students to display their critical thinking skills

A possible informal formative assessment could be to give the students a poem and ask them to write a quick response regarding what it means.

Applies cognitive theory: students access prior knowledge, good basis for deepening their understanding

Theory Application Recap

Remember...

Behavior as a Reflection of the Cognitive Process

What does this mean?

Cognitive Theories in "Talking to the Text"

  • People's cognitive processes can be inferred from their behavior
  • Jensen's students read and analyze the poem "Old Man" by Ricardo Sanchez.
  • Jensen's lesson demonstrates a use of Cognitive Theories through the assumptions that:
  • Behavior is a reflection of cognitive processes
  • People are selective about what information is processed and learned
  • People construct their own meanings and understandings

What is the educational implication?

  • Have students explain their reasoning so that you can better analyze how they are thinking

(Ormrod, 2014)

How is this displayed in "Talking to the Text"?

By asking follow-up questions, Jensen challenges students expand on/support their answers.

(Ormrod, 2014)

Jensen: "What were some of the things that jumped out at you?"

Harris: "A Mexican guy wrote it."

Jensen: "Okay. A Mexican person wrote it. How do you know that?"

Jensen: "What about the subtitle...'remembrances (smiles/hurts sweetly).' What do you think about that?"

Cognitive Theories

Jerry: "Probably somebody, the character, died very peacefully."

Cindy: "...the thing that they remember and I think what Jerry said about him dying or something."

Jensen: "Is there a word in there that makes you think about dying? Why do you both say 'dying'?"

("Talking to the Text," 2001)

By asking follow-up questions, teachers can:

1. Gain a better understanding of how each individual student came to his/her understanding of the material

2. Apply this understanding of the each student's unique cognitive processes in future lessons

(Ormrod, 2014)

Selectivity About What is Learned

What does this mean?

  • People receive a lot of information through senses
  • They choose consciously and unconsciously which information they are going to interpret

What is the educational implication?

  • Help students select which information they are going to process (most important thing to learn)
  • Make sure they understand WHY those pieces of information are more important

(Ormrod, 2014)

*Less important

information*

*Important information*

How is this displayed in "Talking to the Text"?

Jensen helps students to understand what information they should focus on and interpret.

What does this mean?

What are the first things that are gonna come into your mind?

Student: "Lots of ideas."

What are the first things that are gonna come into your mind?

Construction of Meanings and Understandings

Jensen: "What are the first things that are gonna come into your mind?"

Student: "Ask a question."

(Ormrod, 2014)

What are the first things that are gonna come into your mind?

Student: "Predict what the poem is gonna be about."

What are the first things that are gonna come into your mind?

Student: "Connections"

What are the first things that are gonna come into your mind?

Student: "Something that happened to you before"

Jensen: "I want you to look at the title, the author, the kind of structure it is."

  • Meaning and understanding does not come directly from the environment
  • People construct their own meanings and understandings of information based off their experiences

("Talking to the Text," 2001)

By understanding what to look for in the poem, students learn:

1. Which information is important

2. How to selectively pull out important information for interpretation

What is the educational implication?

(Ormrod, 2014)

  • Provide experiences that will help students construct meaning and understanding from the material

(Ormrod, 2014)

Students have been taught to look for connections to their experiences.

Jensen: What are the first things that are gonna come in to your mind?

How is this displayed in "Talking to the Text"?

(Ormrod, 2014)

Student: "Something that happened to you before"

Students use personal connections and prior experiences to understand poem.

("Talking to the Text," 2001)

Ricardo: "When I saw 'Ricardo', I said, 'My name is Ricardo, too.'"

Jensen: "So that was a connection, wasn't it? Okay you made a connection to yourself."

Jesús: "Albuquerque.'"

Jensen: "It says 'amidst familial gatherings in...'"

Jensen: "What is Albuquerque?"

Jesús: "It's a city in New Mexico."

Jensen: "You knew that, why?"

Jesús: "'Cause I go there."

Jesús: "Yeah."

Jensen: "You've been there? You have family there?"

Jensen: "You see? So you have a whole connection to when they're talking about Albuquerque, right?"

Students can learn to draw connections from between their experiences and the material if teachers:

("Talking to the Text," 2001)

1. Design lessons with their student's unique life experiences in mind

2. Provide experiences for students to draw from in the lesson plan

(Ormrod, 2014)

"Talking to the Text"

Teacher, Rita Jensen, asks students to read, analyze, and discuss the poem "Old Man" by Ricardo Sanchez.

Then, they discuss poem in small groups.

Last, the whole class discusses the questions they had and the interpretations they made after reading poem and discussing in small groups.

  • Students look at and scan poem (without reading) to get first impressions.
  • They write down all initial thoughts (questions, predictions, connections).

Next, they read poem with their first impressions in mind.

626 - 62 - 6826, 4729 - 8145 - 55, 6944 - 6976 -16

("Talking to the Text," 2001)

USC Rossier School of Education

Theory Application

"Talking to the Text"

Theory Application Map

I. What is the "Talking to the Text" video?

II. How does the lesson in "Talking to the Text" use principles and assumptions of Cognitive Theories?

"Talking to the Text" displays three assumptions of Cognitive Theories.

A. Assumption 1: Behavior is a reflection of cognitive processes

B. Assumption 2: People are selective about what information is processed and learned

C. Assumption 3: People construct their own meanings and understandings

(Ormrod, 2014)

EDUC 518

Dr. Corinne Hyde

Cognitive Psychology

General theoretical perspective that focuses on the mental processes underlying learning and behavior.

Learning: Long-term change in mental representations or associations as a result of experience.

Cognitive processes influence what is learned.

How, and the extent to which, one thinks about material needed to be learned affects ones' memory.

(Ormrod, 2014, p.157)

Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology

  • Learners take numerous, separate pieces of information and use them to create a general understanding, interpretation, or recollection of some aspect of their world.

  • These creations may or may not be accurate.

Meanings and understandings are not derived directly from the environment; instead, they are constructed by the learner.

Cognitive psychologists believe that by observing people's responses to various objects and events, it's possible to draw reasonable inferences about the cognitive processes that underlie the responses.

People's cognitive processes can sometimes be inferred from their behaviors.

It's impossible to perceive, one's interpretation of stimuli, everything the body senses. One must choose a few to focus on and ignore the rest.

The human brain changes in significant ways over the course of childhood, adolescence and through adulthood.

  • These changes happen gradually, in trends.

Maturational changes in the brain enable increasingly sophisticated cognitive processes with age.

People are selective about what they mentally process and learn.

(Ormrod, 2014, p.157)

Long-Term Memory Storage

Long-Term Memory Storage Processes

Making connections between new information and prior knowledge.

  • Visual Imagery: Forming a mental picture of something, either by actually seeing it or by envisioning how it might look. Especially effective if used in conjunction with other meaningful learning processes.

Meaningful Learning

Long-Term Memory Storage Processes

  • Elaboration: Embellishing on new information based on what one already knows. Only effective associations and additions made are appropriate and productive.

Learning is done primarily through repetition and practice, with little or no attempt to make sense of what is being learned.

Rote Learning

How Knowledge Can be Organized

  • Rehearsal: Repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
  • Organization: Making connections among various pieces of new information: Only effective if organizational structure is legitimate and consists of more than just discrete facts.

Learners construct their knowledge and understandings in to concepts, schema and theories.

Rote learning is relatively ineffective compared to Meaningful Learning, and later retrieval is difficult.

(Ormrod, 2014, p.167-168)

Five Types of Knowledge

  • Concepts: Mental grouping of objects or events that have something in common.

  • Schema: Tightly organized set of facts, or concepts, about a specific topic.

  • Theories: Integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon.

(Ormrod, 2014, p.166)

Declarative Knowledge: Knowledge concerning the nature of how things are, were or will be.

Procedural Knowledge: Knowledge concerning how to do something.

Conditional Knowledge: Knowledge concerning appropriate ways to respond (physically or mentally) under various circumstances.

Explicit Knowledge: Knowledge that a person is consciously aware of and can verbally describe.

Implicit Knowledge: Knowledge that a person cannot consciously recall or explain but that nevertheless affects the person's thinking or behavior.

Weaknesses

Strengths and Weaknesses

Confirmation biases can prevent learners from learning new information.

Students may lack a knowledge base, which will make meaningful learning difficult

Interference, attention, decay, and the nature of working memory all limit the amount of information a student can process and retain.

Epistemic beliefs can negatively influence the ability and motivation for students to learn.

A Model of Human Memory

Environmental

Stimuli

Information Processing Theory

Sensory Register

Central Executive

Theoretical perspective that focuses on the specific ways in which learners mentally think about, or process, new information and events.

Component of memory that holds incoming information in an unanalyzed form for a very brief time, 2 - 3 seconds.

  • May be part of working memory.
  • Focuses attention and oversees flow of information throughout the memory system.
  • Selects and controls voluntary behaviors.
  • Inhibits counterproductive thoughts and actions.
  • Information is stored unencoded.
  • It has a large capacity.
  • Information that is stored does not last long.
  • To keep information, it must be moved to working memory.

Strengths

Working (Short - Term) Memory

Component of memory that holds and actively thinks about and processes a limited amount of information for a short time.

Grows critical thinking, problem solving and creative abilities.

Offers students the chance for metacognition to develop

Meaningful Learning happens as students connect new information to their knowledge base.

Offers students a variety of strategies and the time to learn.

  • Information stored in working memory does not last very long. 5 - 20 seconds.
  • Rapid repetition of a small amount of information can keep it fresh in the working memory. Called Maintenance Rehearsal.

Attention!!!

  • This involves directing the appropriate sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and also the mind.

Interference

Decay

  • Distractions while working with information in the working memory can stop it from being transferred to Long-Term Memory.

Whatever someone mentally pays attention to moves into working memory from the sensory register.

  • If information is not put into working memory, it disappears.
  • Attention has a limited capacity.

Long-Term Memory

Component of memory that holds knowledge and skills for a relatively long time.

  • Information stored here lasts a long time.
  • There is a seemingly limitless capacity.
  • The more information stored here, the easier it is to learn new things.

(Ormrod, 2014, p.159 - 165)

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