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Nieuwouat, J.E., Zhou, S., Coutts, R.A., Booker, R. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia: current research and
potential classification as a disorder. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 569-577. doi: 10.1016/j/psychsport.2012.03.006
Pope, C.G., Pope, H.G., Menard, W., Fay, C., Olivardia, R., Phillips, K.A. (2005). Clinical feautures of
muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 2, 395-400. Doi: 10.1016/j/boyim.2005.09.001
Silver, J., Reavey, . (2010). "He's a good-looking chap aint he?": Narrative and visualisations of self in
body dysmorphic disorder. Social Science and Medicine, 70, 1641-1647. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.11.042
Wolke, D., Sapounda, M (2008). Big men feeling small: childhood bullying experience, muscle
dysmorphia and other mental health problems in bodybuilders. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 595-604. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.10.002
Atmaca, M., Bingol, T., Aydin, A., Yildirim, H., Okur, L., Yildirim, M.A., Gurok, M.G. (2010). Brain morphology of
patients with body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 123, 258-263. doi: 10.1016/j/jad.2009.08.012
Bergerson, D., Tylka, T.L. (2007) Support for the uniqueness of body dissatisfaction from drive for muscularity
among men. Body Image, 4, 288-295. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.05.002
Borkoles, E.,Polman, R., Levy, A. (2010). Type-D personality and body image in men: the role of exercise status.
Body Image, 7, 39-45. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.10.005
Daniel, S., Bridges, S.K. (2010). The drive for muscularity in men: media influences and objectification theory. Body
Image, 7, 32-38. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.08.003
Gillen, M.M., Lefkowitz, E.S. (2012). Gender and racial/ethnic differences in body image development among
college students. Body Image, 9, 126-130. doi: 10.1016/j/bodyim.2011.09.004
- Disorders defined by society (abnormal behaviour)
- From media and everyday life
MD (Daniel & Bridges, 2010):
- Sexually objectifying images influenced more distress
- Media images: television, magazines, pornography
BDD:
- Unrealistic image of "perfect body" by society --> lead to safety behaviours (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2012)
- Images influenced distress in 44% of women (Berg et al., 2007)
FEMALES BDD (Silver & Reavey, 2010):
- Preffered childhood (young and beautiful)
MALES MD (Wolke & Sapouna, 2008):
- Despised childhood (child abuse: felt hopeless/powerless)
(Pope et al., 2005)
Originally known as "reverse anorexia" since they share similar characteristics
(Nieuwoudt et al., 2012)
Intake more calories instead of fewer
(Fay et al., 2005)
Today, defined as: preoccupation with muscularity and appearance that effects everday functioning
Symptoms and Signs: Body checking, neuroticism, hypercompetitiveness
Body Checking Behaviour (Alfano et al., 2011):
- checking if self meets unrealistic requirements for appearance
BDD in Females (Bergerson & Tylka, 2007):
- Check for facial, symeterical and general body deficits
MD in Males (Bergerson & Tylka, 2007):
- Check for muscular and height deficits
(Atmaca et al., 2010)
Preoccupied with imagined deficits in regards to appearance that effects everyday functioning
More prevalent in women
BDD (Borkoles, Polman & Levy, 2012):
- Preoccupied with appearance (camouflage)
MD (Babusa et al., 2012):
- Preoccupied with function (want to gain weight and strength)
- (Windheim, Veale & Anson, 2011)80% SB, 20% no SB
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