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References

References Continued

Nieuwouat, J.E., Zhou, S., Coutts, R.A., Booker, R. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia: current research and

potential classification as a disorder. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 569-577. doi: 10.1016/j/psychsport.2012.03.006

Pope, C.G., Pope, H.G., Menard, W., Fay, C., Olivardia, R., Phillips, K.A. (2005). Clinical feautures of

muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image, 2, 395-400. Doi: 10.1016/j/boyim.2005.09.001

Silver, J., Reavey, . (2010). "He's a good-looking chap aint he?": Narrative and visualisations of self in

body dysmorphic disorder. Social Science and Medicine, 70, 1641-1647. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.11.042

Wolke, D., Sapounda, M (2008). Big men feeling small: childhood bullying experience, muscle

dysmorphia and other mental health problems in bodybuilders. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 595-604. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.10.002

Atmaca, M., Bingol, T., Aydin, A., Yildirim, H., Okur, L., Yildirim, M.A., Gurok, M.G. (2010). Brain morphology of

patients with body dysmorphic disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 123, 258-263. doi: 10.1016/j/jad.2009.08.012

Bergerson, D., Tylka, T.L. (2007) Support for the uniqueness of body dissatisfaction from drive for muscularity

among men. Body Image, 4, 288-295. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.05.002

Borkoles, E.,Polman, R., Levy, A. (2010). Type-D personality and body image in men: the role of exercise status.

Body Image, 7, 39-45. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.10.005

Daniel, S., Bridges, S.K. (2010). The drive for muscularity in men: media influences and objectification theory. Body

Image, 7, 32-38. doi: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.08.003

Gillen, M.M., Lefkowitz, E.S. (2012). Gender and racial/ethnic differences in body image development among

college students. Body Image, 9, 126-130. doi: 10.1016/j/bodyim.2011.09.004

Psychology and Sociology

- Disorders defined by society (abnormal behaviour)

- From media and everyday life

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

MD (Daniel & Bridges, 2010):

- Sexually objectifying images influenced more distress

- Media images: television, magazines, pornography

Muscle Dysmorphia and Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Disorders Created by Society

BDD:

- Unrealistic image of "perfect body" by society --> lead to safety behaviours (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2012)

- Images influenced distress in 44% of women (Berg et al., 2007)

CHILDHOOD

FEMALES BDD (Silver & Reavey, 2010):

- Preffered childhood (young and beautiful)

MALES MD (Wolke & Sapouna, 2008):

- Despised childhood (child abuse: felt hopeless/powerless)

MD

(Pope et al., 2005)

Originally known as "reverse anorexia" since they share similar characteristics

(Nieuwoudt et al., 2012)

Intake more calories instead of fewer

(Fay et al., 2005)

Today, defined as: preoccupation with muscularity and appearance that effects everday functioning

Symptoms and Signs: Body checking, neuroticism, hypercompetitiveness

Psychology: Body Checking Behaviour

Body Checking Behaviour (Alfano et al., 2011):

- checking if self meets unrealistic requirements for appearance

BDD in Females (Bergerson & Tylka, 2007):

- Check for facial, symeterical and general body deficits

MD in Males (Bergerson & Tylka, 2007):

- Check for muscular and height deficits

BDD

Safety Behaviour

(Atmaca et al., 2010)

Preoccupied with imagined deficits in regards to appearance that effects everyday functioning

More prevalent in women

BDD (Borkoles, Polman & Levy, 2012):

- Preoccupied with appearance (camouflage)

MD (Babusa et al., 2012):

- Preoccupied with function (want to gain weight and strength)

- (Windheim, Veale & Anson, 2011)80% SB, 20% no SB

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