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- Did human's knowledge increased cumulatively?
- Did the number of problems that are solved through science constantly increased?
- Does the 'conventional knowledge,' which is once recognized as a proper knowledge keeps its status permanently?
* Germ Theory states that many diseases are caused by the presence and actions of specific microorganisms within the body.
- Superseded existing miasma/contagion theories
- Denies that he is relativist
- Three core values that determine the theory choice: "Objectivity, Value Judgement, and Theory Choice"
Higgs Boson is an elementary particle initially theorized in 1964, and tentatively confirmed to exist on 14 March 2013. The discovery has been called 'monumental' because it appears to confirm the existence of the Higgs field, which is pivotal to particle physics.
Popper's POV
- This discovery contains testability, falsifibility, and refutability: If new particle is discovered, existence of Higgs Boson can be rejected. Through conjecture and refutation, science is continously developing.
Kuhn's POV
- There was no sequence of paradigm (Prescience -> NS -> ....)
- 'Old' sciences are totally smashed down
- But this discovery can be accepted; there is no strict line between science/pseudoscience.
* Anything that cannot be falsified = not science:
distinguish genuine science from pseudo-science (Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Karl Marx)
"Every 'good' scentific theory is a prohibition"
"Irrefutability is not a virtue of a theory but a vice"
Consequences should extend beyond that which it was initially designed to explain
Empirically adequate with experimentation and observation
A theory should disclose new phenomena or new relationships among phenomena
Internally consistent, but also externally consistent
The simplest explanation
Logical comparison of the conclusions (testing internal consistency)
Testing with empirical applications of the conclusions
Investigation of the logical form of the theory; determine the character of scientific theory
Comparison with other theories; whether the theory would constitute a scientific advance
- Rejected the logical positivism established by the Vienna Circle, which was influenced by Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
- The 'questions' assume one presupposition; knowledge issues (a) did not changed or (b) increased.
- According to Kuhn, this statement cannot be justified because 'past science' and 'present science' cannot be comparatively evaluated.
= they are incommensurable
- Popper considered (a) induction as a fallacy of affirming the consequent; the development of science is achieved through the process of falsifying/refuting, by observing the experiencial fact that rejects the justification of original theory
= falsificationism
Logical positivists use the classical method of reasoning: modus ponens
(a) If Socrates is a man, then Socrates is mortal.
(b) Socrates is a man.
(c) Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Karl Popper's philosophy uses modus tolens, or falsifying;
(a) If Socrates is a god, then Socrates is immortal.
(b) Socrates is not immortal.
(c) Therefore, Socrates is not a god.
- His philosophy is revealed mainly from his controversial book, The Structure of Scientific Revolution (SSR).
- No dominant paradigm
- Lacks central paradigm
- Immature
- Number of scientists share one paradigm
- Attempt to enlarge the central paradigm
- Productive stage
- Failure is not a refutation!!
- Unsolved questions increase
- Protestors toward the "normal science" increase
- ex) Classical Mechanics vs Electromagnetism
- New paradigm is accepted
- Creative paradigm that goes beyond the "normal science"
- With consensus, paradigm shifts happen
- But again, rival paradigms are incommensurable
-> "Theory choice is fundamentally irrational" (David Stove)
-> "I'm not a Kuhnian!"
- Scientific theory is a hypothetical estimation that is suggested to resolve the problems that the original theory could not solve.
- Scientific theorys that endured falsification are relatively closer to the 'genuine truth,' but not always absolutely true.
- Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt of conjecture and refutation.
= Critical Realism
* Critical Reaslism starts from recognizing that human's reason is not perfect, which is also known as fallibilism.
* To go beyond the limit of reason, human must allow each other's critical testing and try to reach the 'genuine truth' through falsification.