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Transcript

GOAL!

False Dilemma A.K.A. Either/Or Fallacy-President Bush speaks to Congress 9 days after the 9/11/2001 terrorist attacks.

Straw Man--In this video, president Obama's observations and proposed solutions are often oversimplified. In his defense, we lack full context but for the purpose of understanding the fallacy, let's assume there isn't much.

Counterargument Thesis

Open Thesis

  • In a counterargument thesis, a summary of the counterargument, usually qualified by "although" or "but," precedes the writer's opinion
  • Common format for history/DBQ essays
  • Thesis immediately addresses the counterargument, making the argument seem stronger and more reasonable
  • This may create a more seamless transition to concession and refutation later in the essay.
  • Useful for topics that may be highly controversial
  • Example:
  • Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popularity has less to do with storytelling than merchandising.

  • Does not list all the main points
  • If you're writing a long essay with five, six, or more main points, then an open thesis is more effective than a closed thesis.
  • For example:
  • the popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.

Fallacies of Accuracy

Closed Thesis Statements

From Claim to Thesis

  • a statement of the author's central claims that includes the sub-topics/sub-claims the author will address in the paper.
  • Example: the three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children's books but enduring literary classics.
  • Perfect for short papers 3-5 pages

Red Herring Fallacy

Essay in Progress: Staking a Claim

  • A thesis most be defensible (able to be supported by fact) and debatable (arguable)
  • Essay in progress: Developing a thesis
  • Closed Thesis
  • Open Thesis
  • Counterargument Thesis
  • Presenting Evidence
  • Types of Evidence
  • Logical Fallacy

•Using inaccurate evidence (intentionally or unintentionally) results in a fallacy of accuracy.​

•The most common type is the straw man fallacy – this occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an opponent’s viewpoint.

Definition: One way of making our own arguments stronger is to anticipate and respond in advance to the arguments that an opponent might make. In the straw man fallacy, the arguer sets up a weak version of the opponent’s position and tries to score points by knocking it down

  • After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenseless by cutting military spending (yourlogicalfallacyis.com)

•False dilemma is another type of fallacy. This often occurs when a speaker uses an either/or statement which only offers two ways to view an issue, and both are extreme and inaccurate. For example:​

  • Either we agree to wearing school uniforms, or we will be in danger of school bullying and other violence.​

Claims of Policy

  • Choosing one of the topics you explored initially, write three different claims that could focus an essay. Be sure each is arguable. Comment on whether your argument will likely include more than one type of claim.
  • Note***-claims of policy often require claims of fact and/or value to adequately argue.

Fallacies of Relevance

Claims of Value

  • Often set off by "should"
  • Any time you propose a change, you're making a claim of policy
  • Local issues include: proposing a new school dress code, claiming your school should raise money to help the needy, arguing that you should be able to go out later on the weekends
  • Broader issues: proposing a transition to alternative energy sources, a change in copyright laws, a change in legislation to allow felons to vote.
  • An argument of policy generally begins with a definition of the problem (a claim of fact), explains why it is a problem (a claim of value), and then explains the change that needs to happen (a claim of policy).

Faulty Analogy

  • Fallacies of relevance result from using evidence that’s irrelevant to the claim.
  • Red Herring: this often happens when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion.
  • An ad hominem fallacy of relevance is a diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker.
  • Faulty analogies can occur when a writer or speaker attempts to use an analogy to support an argument. This happens when the analogy compares two things based on irrelevant or inconsequential similarities. For example, an argument that “we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we should do the same for people” asks the reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people. At first glance, it appeals to emotions, but it is logically irrelevant.

  • Arguably the most common
  • Argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable
  • Entertainment reviews or assessments of a person's/group's success tend to be based on claims of value
  • May be a personal judgement based on taste, or they may be more objective observations based on external criterion
  • Examples
  • If you argue Brad Pitt is the best actor in Hollywood, that is simply a matter of taste.
  • Investing in fast-food companies can be socially responsible

Terms Explained

Logical Fallacies

Claims of Fact

Claim-we know what that is

Evidence-support for claim

Warrant-assumption shared by speaker and audience. The warrant links the claim and evidence.

-If the assumption is too grand, no amount of evidence will convince the audience

Backing-data and information supporting the assumption

Qualifier-WORD/PHRASE that makes the claim less definitive (usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, most likely)

Reservation-clarifies the other side of the qualifier. Ex. if qualifier is usually, the reservation highlights the unusual case.

  • Logical fallacies are potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument.
  • A fallacy is a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support the claim.
  • Sometimes fallacies are accidental. Other times, they are used to intentionally manipulate or deceive.
  • Intentional or unintentional, fallacies work against the civility of a good argument.
  • You should be aware of the different types of fallacies so that you can find them in other arguments and avoid using them in your own arguments.

Types of Evidence

Ad Hominem-Republican Primaries

  • Good writers use a variety of evidence and base the type of evidence on the audience and the three appeals (ethos, pathos, logos)
  • First-Hand Evidence
  • Personal experience
  • Anecdotes
  • Current Events
  • Second-Hand Evidence
  • Historical information
  • Expert opinion
  • Quantitative evidence (stats, studies)

Essay in Progress: Developing a Thesis

Presenting Evidence

Organizing Your Argument

  • Now that you understand the different types of claims and how to develop them into thesis statements, you can begin drafting an argument. Select one of the claims you worked with. Draft two different thesis statements that might guide an essay on the subject.
  • Which one do you think is more promising for a full essay?
  • Once a writer has established a claim and developed a thesis statement, the next step is to support it with effective evidence.
  • What evidence to present, how much is necessary, and how to present it are all rhetorical choices guided by an understanding of the audience.
  • Evidence should always be relevant, accurate, and sufficient.
  • Good arguments always explicitly spell out what the relationship is between an example and the argument at hand (warrant).
  • Good evidence comes from reliable sources which the audience is likely to trust as much as the writer. Consider the type of evidence you will use

Toulmin Model

-no one way it has to be done. "Organization should fit the ideas, rather than forcing ideas to fit into a prescribed...pattern."--Bedford.

-Important to think through the rhetorical situation first

Rhetorical Triangle

-speaker/persona

-audience

-subject

Considering who you are as a speaker, the intended audience and your subject helps you arrive at your purpose (to inform (primarily claims of fact), to change (claims of fact, value and central claim of policy), to evaluate (central claim of value with claims of fact)

-there are some common strategies, however...

Deduction

-Widely accepted and valued form of reasoning

-seeks to uncover assumptions that plague arguments

-useful for analysis and structure and useful to test individual claims/thesis

-Six Elements:

-Claim

-Support (evidence)

-Warrant (the assumption)

-Backing

-Qualifier

-Reservation/rebuttal

-structured as syllogism ("Declaration of Independence" example)

-start with a general principle or universal truth (major premise) and apply it to a specific case (minor premise)

example:

-Citizens have a right to rebel against a despot (major premise)

-King George III is a despot (minor premise)

-Citizens have a right to rebel against King George III

Deduction allows one to make verifiable, valid or provable arguments

-however, if one of the premises is faulty, the argument will be extremely vulnerable

Example:

-women are poor drivers (major premise)

-Ellen is a woman (minor premise)

-Ellen is a poor driver (conclusion)

Induction

First-Hand Evidence

Steps for your Argument Paper

-arrangement from particulars (specific examples) to universals (reasonable conclusions)

-supporting your claim through a series of reasons explained through concrete examples (sound familiar?)

-arguments cannot be proven but can be considered strong or weak

-less emphasis on refutation (can make argument weaker if topic controversial, i.e. "Nation of Wimps")

-Example:

-claim: regular exercise promotes weight loss

-claim: exercise lowers stress levels

-claim: exercise improves mood and outlook

-Generalization/thesis: Exercise contributes to better health

•First-hand evidence is something you know, whether it’s from personal experience, anecdotes you’ve heard from others, observations, or your general knowledge of events.​

  • Key is that this evidence must be relevant, accurate and sufficient.

First-Hand Evidence (Personal Experience)

  • Most common type of 1st hand evidence
  • pot

1) settle on a topic

2) generate a central claim and possible sub and counter claims

3) turn your central claim into a clear thesis (closed, open, or counterargument)

4) brainstorm 3 paragraphs of evidence in support of your claim (1st person, anecdotal, quantitative, expert opinion)

5) test your thesis using Toulmin

6) Determine how you are going to organize your essay (classical oration, induction, deduction, induction/deduction, Toulmin) and generate an outline (know what you want to do in each paragraph)

7) Conduct more research to fill in gaps (should be done with steps 1-7 by next class)

8) Begin Drafting (rough draft due Tuesday the 18th)

Analyzing Assumptions

The Classical Oration Model

-5 part structure: introduction, narration, confirmation, refutation, conclusion

-Again, really a tool for analyzing assumptions

-If the audience shares your assumptions, or your assumptions are reasonable, they are more likely to support your argument

Language of Toulmin analysis. Use the following terms when identifying the aspects of an argument

-Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).

-phrasing is awkward but it's a tool for analysis, not to be transposed to writing. USUALLY, IDENTIFYING THE EVIDENCE, CLAIM AND WARRANT IS ENOUGH TO VERIFY VALIDITY

Example: Because it is raining (evidence), therefore I should take my umbrella (claim), since it will keep me dry (warrant).

Example with all parts: because it is raining, therefore I should take my umbrella, since it will keep me dry, on account of it's waterproof material, unless it has a hole in it.

Test your thesis with Toulmin

example: because grades add stress to the learning environment, therefore we should abolish grades since stress is destructive to learning, on account of the anxiety it produces.

-Because you haven't bought me a diamond, therefore I don't know if you love me, since the gift of jewelry is the only sign of love.

-Introduction

-introduces audience to issue (could be several paragraphs)

-draws reader in, hooks, etc.

-good time for ethos (speaker and subject)

-usually includes thesis or central claim

-Narration

-provides facts and background

-essentially why the subject is worth addressing

-pathos and logos

-Confirmation

-bulk of essay

-nuts and bolts (best evidence in support of case)

-logos

-Refutation

-counterargument/refute opposing claims

-may be earlier in essay if suitable (Domini)

-logos

-Conclusion (may be more than one paragraph)

-not merely a restatement of information

-answers the question: so what?

-last words are one's the audience is most likely to remember.

  • Assert that something is true or not
  • Facts become arguable when they are questioned, when they raise controversy, and when they challenge people's beliefs.
  • **"any time we have a statistic, we are arguing a claim of fact"--Bedford editors
  • For example:
  • "It's a fact that the Social Security program will go bankrupt by 2025" is a claim that could be developed into an argument of fact.
  • The claim that cell phones increase the incidence of brain tumors requires sifting through new "facts."

Bandwagon Fallacy

-the suggestion that everyone is doing it, therefore it must be a good thing.

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc-"after which therefore because of which." Essentially, this happens when we intentionally or unintentionally confuse correlation with causation.

Example: Hillary Clinton doesn't know how to keep our country safe. Since she has been Secretary of State, ISIS has greatly expanded its global influence.

Types of Claims

Hasty Generalization

Fallacies of Insufficiency

•Perhaps the most common of fallacies occurs when evidence is insufficient.​

•We call this a hasty generalization, meaning that there is not enough evidence to support a particular conclusion. For example: “Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.” Even if this is true, a single anecdote cannot discredit years of medical research.​

  • Many stereotypes are built on hasty generalization. "they're all __________________(insert close-minded judgement)..."

•Another fallacy of insufficiency is circular reasoning which involves repeating a claim to provide evidence, resulting in no evidence at all. For example: “You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!” (The evidence that she should get an a is that she’s an A student.)

Circular Reasoning

  • There are three types of claims:
  • Claims of Fact
  • Claims of Value
  • Claims of Policy
  • While it is helpful to separate the three for analysis, in practice it is not always that simple.
  • Oftentimes, an argument will include more than one type of claim.

Is it a Claim?

  • SUV owners should be required to pay an energy surcharge
  • Charter schools are an alternative to public schools.
  • Ronald Reagan was the most charismatic president of the twentieth century.
  • Requiring students to wear uniforms improves school spirit.
  • The terms global warming and climate change describe different perspectives on this complex issue.
  • Print newspapers will not survive another decade.
  • Plagiarism is a serious problem in today's schools.

Staking a Claim

The Art of Argument

  • Every argument has a claim--also called an assertion or proposition. This is the main idea or position of the argument.
  • Different from a subject or topic in that it has to be ARGUABLE
  • In Domini's article:
  • Topic: social investing in the fast-food industry
  • Claim: Investing in fast-food companies can be socially responsible
  • NOTE****-a topic may be a single word or phrase while a claim must be stated as a complete sentence

Essay in Progress: Selecting a Topic

  • What are two controversial topics that interest you?
  • Brainstorm how you might develop an argument about each from two different viewpoints. Consider the potential for volatile or highly emotional responses to each. What could you do to encourage a civil tone and approach?
  • Make sure you choose ideas that you could develop into a full essay. We will continue to return to these throughout the lesson.

So What Does Civil Argument Look Like?

Let's examine a short article that appeared in Ode magazine in 2009, entitled "Why Investing in Fast Food May Be a Good Thing." In this piece Amy Domini, a financial adviser and leading voice for socially responsible investing, argues the counter-intuitive position that investing in the fast-food industry can be an ethically responsible choice

Discuss:

-Identify 2 points where Domini finds common ground and promotes dialogue with her audience through civil discourse instead of accusing, blaming, or dismissing the Slow Food Movement

Essentials for Any Argument

  • The rhetorical appeals
  • ethos
  • pathos
  • logos
  • claim (one is central, but usually several claims are made)
  • evidence
  • warrant-connection between evidence and claim
  • Counter-argument/refutation-acknowledge a refute opposing viewpoints
  • organization (not formulaic. Should be based on rhetorical triangle/situation).

Claim, Thesis, Structure, Fallacy, Toulmin

What is Argument?

-For our purposes, we define rhetoric as persuasive discourse, a coherent and considered movement from claim to conclusion

-Rogerian (Carl Rogers) Argument-avoid thinking of argument as a win/lose situation and begin to think of it as a means of better understanding other people's ideas as well as your own.