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Alan Baddeley developed the working memory approach.  According to this approach, working memory is a system with several different parts that control the information being processed.  This led to the development of Allan Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory.  This model assumes that each component has a limited capacity and is relatively, not entirely, independent of the others.

Baddeley’s original model contained three components, the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive.  However, the current model also contains the episodic buffer.

A trace is some form of physical and/or chemical change in the nervous system.

Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace. Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited duration of short term memory.

This theory suggests short term memory can only hold information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed.  After this time the information / trace decays and fades away.

By - Harjeet Kaur & Risha Bhattacharya

PGI Memory Scale

Methodology

Dimensions measured in the Instrument

Psychometric Properties

ADVANTAGES -

  • Made without the influence of foreign methods of assessment.
  • Based of Indian samples and can be generalized for the same.

MATERIALS REQUIRED - PGIMS Consumable Booklet (Answer Sheet), PGIMS Manual, Stationery.

PRECAUTIONS -

  • Instructions were made clear.
  • Calm and peaceful environment was maintained.
  • Intervals were timed appropriately.

INSTRUCTIONS -

Remote Memory - '' I am going to ask you some questions and I would like you to reply to them honestly and promptly."

Recent Memory - " I will ask some questions about your recent activities, please answer them honestly."

Mental Balance - "I will ask you some common memory and problem solving questions, please answer them. There is no time limit."

PROBLEM - To assess the subject's memory span with the help of the PGI - Memory Scale, developed by Dwarka Prasad and N. N. Wig.

PLAN - The given 10 subtests are administered and the memory span of the subject is determined with the help of the norms.

Validity – PGI Memory scale was found to have a correlation of .71 with Boton Memory Sclare and .85 with the Wechsler memory scale. It also confirmed the 4 hypotheses set to demonstrate its validity.

Quintile norms were developed for the subjects in the age range of 20-45 years for the 3 education levels (i.e. 0-5 6-9 and 10+ above years of schooling) separately for each of the ten sub-tests.

References -

Bower, Gordon H. "A Brief History of Memory Research (1991)

PGIMS (English Version), National Psychological Corporation, Agra. (1977)

It contains 10 sub tests –

1. Remote memory

2. Recent memory

3. Mental balance

4. Attention concentration

5. Delayed recall

6. Immediate recall (sequential reproduction of sentences)

7. Retention for similar pairs

8. Retention for dissimilar pairs

9. Visual retention

10. Recognition

ANALYSIS AND SCORING

INTERPRETATION

DISADVANTAGES -

  • Too small a sample size for the purpose of reliability and validity.
  • Initially made for those suffering with mental disorders and criticised for general application

cont. - For second question, 2-3 digits = 1 score, 4-5 digits = 2 score (1 score for 1 mistake, 0 score for more than 2 mistakes), 6-7 digits = 3 if all correct ( 2 score for 1 mistake and 0 score for 3 or more mistakes), 8 digits = 4 score (3 score for 1 mistake, 2 score for 2 mistakes and 0 score for 3 or more mistakes). (Total max possible score = 16)

Subtest 5 - 1 score for each correct. (Total possible score = 10)

Subtest 6 - 1 score for each clause correctly reproduced. (Total possible score = 12)

Subtest 7 - 1 score for each correct pair. (Total possible score = 5)

Subtest 8 - 1 score for each correct reproduction. Maximum of 3 trials. (Total Possible score = 15)

Subtest 9 - 2 scores for each card 1-3 (Total possible score = 6), 3 scores for card 4 = 3, 4 scores for card 5 = 4. (Total possible score = 13)

Subtest 10 - 1 score for each correct. deduct 1 score for each wrong identification. (Total possible socre = 10)

Max score = 115

Subtest 1 - 1 score for each correct answer. (Maximum possible score - 7)

Subtest 2 - 1 score for each correct answer. (Maximum possible score - 5)

Subtest 3 - For the first 2 questions, 3 score if all correct within 15 sec., 2 score if takes more than 15 secs. and 1 score if 1 mistake or omission. 0 score for 2 or more mistakes.

For last question, 3 score if all correct within 30 sec., 2 score if it takes longer than 30 secs, 1 score if there is 1 mistake and 0 score if there are 2 or more mistakes. (Maximum possible score - 9)

Subtest 4 - For first question, 3-4 digits = 1 score, 5-6 digits = 2 score, (1 score for mistake), 7-8 digits = 3 score (2 score for 1 mistake and 0 score for more than 2 mistakes). (Maximum possible score = 12)

Reliability – for this, the test was re-administered on 40 subjects after an interval of one week. The test re-test reliability ranged between -70 and .84 for organic psychotic groups, .48 to .84 for neurotic-normal’ group. Split half reliability was found to be .91 and .83 respectively.

PGI - Memory Scale

CHUNKING

Pegging Memory System

Retrieval Failure Theory

History of Testing Memory

METHOD OF LOCI

The oldest known mnemonic strategy is called the method of loci ("loci" is the plural of locus, which means location, or place). It's based on the assumption that you can best remember places that you are familiar with, so if you can link something you need to remember with a place that you know very well, the location will serve as a clue that will help you to remember.

Chunking is one way to make remembering relatively lengthy strings of information a little bit easier. As its name implies, chunking involves taking long strings of information like numbers or letters and grouping (or chunking) them into smaller, more manageable bits of information.

A peg memory system is useful for memorising a list of numbered items. The peg is a hookon which we hang the number. You can use any kind of peg system as long as it is easy to remember and used consistently.

Instruments Assessing Memory

PGI memory scale was constructed and standardized in 1977.

TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE MEMORY

Retrieval failure is where the information is in long term memory, but cannot be accessed.  Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present. 

When we store a new memory we also store information about the situation and these are known as retrieval cues.  When we come into the same situation again, these retrieval cues can trigger the memory of the situation. Retrieval cues can be:

External / Context - in the environment, e.g. smell, place etc.

Internal / State- inside of us, e.g. physical, emotional, mood, drunk etc.

The PGI Memory Scale has become a popular memory scale throughout India and replaced the Boston Memory Scale and Wechsler Memory Scale at both the premier institutes of psychiatry i.e., National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore and Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi.

IMAGERY

MNEMONICS

  • S-R theory of trial and error and Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
  • Through the S-R theory, came forward the construct of forgetting.
  • Popularity of different memory tasks – free recall, rejection of tabula rasa assumption of associationists

Wechsler Memory Scale –3rd Edition (WMS-III) = Designed to assess learning, memory, and working memory. For individuals in the age range of 16-89 years.

Benton Visual Retention Test= Designed to assess visual perception, visual memory, and visuoconstructive abilities. For ages 8 and over.

California Verbal Learning Test = It assesses encoding, recall and recognition in a single modality of item presentation (auditory-verbal).

Cambridge Prospective Memory Test (CAMPROMPT) = assessment and rehabilitation of prospective memory problems

Memory Assessment Scales (MAS) = This comprehensive battery assesses short-term, verbal and visual memory functioning.

Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test = Detects impairment of everyday memory functioning: remembering a name, a hidden belonging, an appointment, picture and face recognition, etc.

Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) = comprehensive instrument designed to evaluate general and specific memory functions of individuals aged 5 to 59 years old.

Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) = visual recognition test designed to help psychologists and psychiatrists distinguish between malingered and true memory impairments.

A mnemonic is an instructional strategy designed to help students improve their memory of important information. This technique connects new learning to prior knowledge through the use of visual and/or acoustic cues.

The Method of Loci, mentioned above, is a form of using imagery for memorization. By recalling specific imagery, it can help us recall information we associated with that imagery.

  • Associationism - John Locke, David Hume, David Hartley, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, and Ivan Pavlov, asserted that the principle applied to all or most mental processes.
  • Revival of association from memory was hypothesized.
  • Ebbinghaus and the Rote learning theory (1885) – he introduced many important ideas of novel associations in the Journal of Experimental Psychology : Learning, Memory and Cognition (1985). He then formulated the Forgetting Curve.

The scale was validated against 4 hypotheses –

i) The subject suffering from neurological disorders will obtain poorer scores than the subjects suffering from functional psychiatric illness

ii) The older subjects should obtain lower scores than younger normal adults

iii) The scores on memory scale should have positive relationship with education

iv) It should not have high correlation with intelligence test scores

Interference Theory

Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting

Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories (Baddeley, 1999). 

There are two ways in which interference can cause forgetting:

FORGETTING

Working memory consists of a central executive which controls and coordinates the operation of two subsystems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch pad.

Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt.  When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories.

THEORIES OF FORGETTING

TULVING’S : modules of memory

Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories.

~Procedural memory  is a part of the long-term memory is responsible for knowing how to do things, i.e. memory of motor skills.  It does not involve conscious thought and is not declarative. 

~Semantic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about the world.  This includes knowledge about the meaning of words, as well as general knowledge.

~Episodic memory is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experienced in our lives.  It involves conscious thought and is declarative. 

Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage.

Central Executive: Drives the whole system (e.g. the boss of working memory) and allocates data to the subsystems (VSS & PL). It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving.

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (inner eye): Stores and processes information in a visual or spatial form. The VSS is used for navigation.

The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It can be used to remember a phone number. It consists of two parts

 Phonological Store (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception Holds information in speech-based form (i.e. spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.

 Articulatory control process (inner voice) – Linked to speech production. Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store.

 Forgetting information from short term memory (STM) can be explained using the theories of trace decay and displacement.

Forgetting from long term memory (LTM) can be explained using the theories of interference and lack of consolidation.

One of the earliest and most influential distinctions of long term memory was proposed by Tulving (1972).  He proposed a distinction between

  • episodic,
  • semantic
  • procedural memory.

Short term memory

Long term memory

Three Type of Processing

Atkinson and shriffon Model of memory

Memory

BADDELEY (WORKING MEMORY)

Sensory memory stores information that has just been perceived. This particularly refers to information that has not yet been attended to or has not yet reached the consciousness of the person, and has not yet been stored in short-term memory. These images last only milliseconds.

  • Memory is the process of maintaining information over time.
  • Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present

Therefore, memory is the process by which we Encode, Store and Retrieve.

Structural - (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of something.  E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look.

Phonemic - which is when we encode its sound. Shallow processing involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help ushold something in the STM) and leads to fairly short-term retention of information.  This is the only type of rehearsal to take place within the multi-store model.

Semantic - which happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar meaning. Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations etc.) of information and leads to better recall. For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with previous knowledge.

  • Long Term Memory is much more stable than short-term memory, probably because a permanent structural change takes place in the brain, namely changes in synaptic strength. 
  • It generates rather than reproduces i.e., it is affected by perception and interpretation of the individual who is remembering. The individual remembers according to schemata or scripts.
  • It is influenced by understanding what has been perceived.
  • Some type of information is encoded in Long Term memory more easily.

Also called working memory.

Contains new information and also information that has been retrieved from Long-term memory.

Lasts seconds or at the most minutes.

Information in short term memory can be rehearsed or processed so that it enters Long Term Memory.

It has a limited capacity – seven, plus or minus two theory – G. A. Miller (1956).

There are two types of sensory Memory:

Iconic – memory reflects information from the visual system.

Echoic – stores auditory information coming from the ears.

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