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Attachment

Module 46: Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development

Harry and Margaret Harlow's research between 1957-1963 with rhesus monkeys challenged their theories about attachment being fostered by providing nourishment and proved the importance of body touch in development

  • When frightened, monkeys retreated to the terry mothers for reassurance and encouragement
  • Findings highlighted the importance of contact comfort
  • Challenged prevailing parenting advice to avoid holding children to prevent spoiling them

Attachment - the powerful bond developed with our caregivers

Harlow's Monkeys

  • High quality day care does not seem to have any negative effects
  • Poor quality care is detrimental to development
  • Children receiving the highest amount of daycare show slight advantages in thinking and language skills as well as elevated aggressiveness and defiance

Day Care

Konrad Lorenz

Imprinting - attachment formed by certain animals like geese and other birds. It is formed with the first thing is sees

  • Indicated that there was a Critical Period or optimal period to stimulate development
  • In research studies in the 30s, Lorenz separated hatching geese from their mothers, allowing them to imprint on him
  • This attachment process is different from that in humans and other animals

Disruption of Attachment

Separation from caregivers is emotionally distressing for children

  • Young children recover quickly when placed in nurturing environments
  • Children who are older than 2 at the time of an adoption struggle with attachment
  • Foster care is disruptive to a child emotional growth and well being
  • We see similar emotional distress when attachment is broken through death or divorce

Attachment Differences

Deprivation of Attachment

Mary Ainsworth - The strange situation test

  • Parents who are attentive and sensitive to their children's needs have children who are securely attached
  • Parents who are inattentive and respond to their children at their convenience, ignoring the child's needs, have children who are insecurely attached
  • Experiments placed children in a strange situation and observed differences in their responses
  • Securely attached children were relaxed and confident as they explored the new environment
  • Insecurely attached children were clingy, unadventurous and distressed at their mother's departure

Lack of attachment and nurture during infancy and childhood has profound and lasting effects

  • Harlow's continued studies showed that isolated monkeys were never able to interact appropriately with other monkeys
  • Human children of neglect are withdrawn and insecure
  • Abused children are more likely to suffer anxiety, depression, and substance abuse problems
  • Those who are abused are more frequently abusers themselves
  • Deprivation can lead to poor neurological growth

Secure attachment provides a safe "base" from which to explore our world

BUT... Is it nature or nurture?

  • Are differences in attachment really a result of parenting styles or are they the result of biologically based differences in temperament (easy, difficult, or slow-to-warm-up babies)?

Self -Concept

Key Terms:

  • Stranger anxiety
  • Attachment
  • Critical period
  • Imprinting
  • Temperament
  • Basic trust
  • Self-concept

Prenatal Development

Module 47: Cognitive Development

Germinal Stage

Module 45: Developmental Issues, Prenatal Development, and the Newborn

Newborns

Three Major Issues in Developmental Psych

Jean Piaget - Swiss Psychologist

  • Worked with children for more than 50 years
  • Noticed children made characteristic errors on IQ tests at various ages
  • Believed that the way children think is fundamentally different than the way adults think
  • We make sense of their world by organizing information into concepts called schemas - frameworks for organizing information
  • Assimilation - interpreting information using existing schemas
  • Accommodation - modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information
  • Nature and nurture
  • Continuity and stages
  • Stability and change

Key Terms

  • Developmental psychology
  • Zygote
  • Embryo
  • Fetus
  • Teratogen
  • Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
  • Habituation
  • Cognition
  • Schema
  • Assimilation
  • Accommodation
  • Sensorimotor stage
  • Object permanence
  • Preoperational stage
  • Concrete operational stage
  • Formal operational stage
  • Conservation
  • Egocentrism
  • Theory of mind
  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Physical Development

Piaget's Theory

  • Reflexes - inborn, involuntary response. Help to ensure survival
  • Rooting
  • Sucking
  • Grasping
  • Startle (Moro)
  • Newborns show a strong preference for human faces
  • Babies see best at a distance of 8-12 inches
  • Has preferences for its mother's smell and voice
  • Babies show preference for novel stimuli, but habituation means that their attention fades with familiarity

Preoperational Stage

Age: 2-7

Maturation - biological growth processes that enable the emergence of personality and behavioral characteristics. Largely independent of experience

Description

Developmental Phenomena

Description

Developmental Phenomena

  • Babies explore the world through their senses
  • Understands the world through symbols (language) and mental images
  • Cannot perform mental operations such as reasoning
  • Pretend play and imagination
  • Egocentrism
  • Irreversibility
  • Centrism
  • Language development
  • lacks conservation abilities
  • Theory of mind - begins to develop
  • Object Permanence - understanding that objects still exist even when they are out of view
  • occurs by 8 months (according to Piaget)
  • more recent research suggests it develops gradually starting much earlier
  • Stranger anxiety develops during this time

Theory Of Mind

  • The cognitive ability to understand ourselves and others in terms of mental processes like thoughts, perceptions, beliefs, desires and feelings
  • We understand that others have have mental processes that are separate and unique from our own
  • We start to be able to see things from another's perspective
  • People with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are said to have an impaired theory of mind (they have difficulty inferring other people's thoughts and feelings)

Motor Development

Sensorimotor Stage

Age: Birth-2yrs

Brain Development:

  • Brain is fully formed at birth but neural development continues
  • Learning and experience cause neural networks to develop
  • Pruning removes unnecessary pathways allowing others to strengthen
  • Ages 3-6 most rapid growth occurs in frontal lobes

Concrete Operational Stage

Age 7-11

Formal Operational Stage

Age: 12-adult

Developmental Phenomena

Description

Developmental Phenomena

  • Capable of abstract reasoning
  • Abstract reasoning
  • Logical, systematic thinking
  • Mature moral reasoning
  • We can think logically about concrete events
  • Can perform arithmetical operations
  • Conservation
  • Hierarchical Classification
  • Mathematical transformations
  • if A+B=C then C-B=A

Maturation and Infant Memory

Social Development Theory

Lev Vygotsky

  • Stressed social component of cognitive development
  • Adults provide temporary scaffolds to enable a child's development
  • Unlike Piaget, believed that cognitive development varied from culture to culture
  • Zone of proximal development -

  • Believed language was important to cognitive development

We have few if any reliable memories prior to the age of about 3.5

  • we don't have the neurological maturity earlier
  • language and self-identity have matured

& Teratogenic susceptibility

Module 48: Social Development

Self-Concept

Our sense of identity and self worth

  • Forms gradually with our understanding of self starting around 15-18 months

Parent and Peer Influence

Peer

Parent

  • Teens form close bonds with a few good friends and additional, casual friends
  • We tend to select friends that are similar to ourselves in age, background, and values
  • Teens are heavily influenced by their peers in regards to dress, music, and attitudes
  • We are the most susceptible to peer pressure around the age of 15
  • Most teens who have good relationships with their parents have conflict that generally revolve around mundane topics
  • Teens who feel close to their parents tend to be happier and more successful in school
  • Teens who begin to individuate from parents and peers have more influence in many areas but parents influence religious beliefs, political leanings, and career

Unit 51:

Social Development

Parenting Styles

Forming an Identity

According to Erikson, the task of adolescence is to solidify our sense of self

  • We develop our sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
  • As we have an increasingly developed sense of self we also report more positive self concept
  • Failure to do this leads to role confusion
  • As we move into young adulthood, we develop an increased capacity for intimacy
  • Identity Crisis - A turning point when adolescents make decisions about their lives

Key Terms:

  • Adolescence

Key Terms

  • Identity
  • Social Identity
  • Intimacy
  • Emerging Adulthood

Transition from childhood to adulthood

Emerging Adulthood

Module 53:

Sexual Development

Key Terms

  • X Chromosome
  • Y Chromosome
  • Testosterone
  • Puberty
  • Primary Sex Characteristic
  • Secondary Sex Characteristic
  • Menarche
  • AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
  • Sexual Orientation

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Puberty

Prenatal Sexual Development

Teen Pregnancy

Puberty

STI's

  • STI rates increasing
  • Young women especially vulnerable due to lower rates of protective antibodies
  • STI rates amongst sexually active 14-19 year old females are around 39%
  • Condoms only offer limited protection (80% for HIV with an infected partner)
  • Around age 11 for girls 13 for boys
  • Starts with development of primary and secondary sex characteristics and ends with sexual maturation
  • This development varies from county to country due to
  • increased body fat
  • increased hormone mimicking chemicals
  • increased stress due to family disruption
  • Compared to European teens, Americans have higher rates of STIs and pregnancy
  • minimal communication about birth control with parents
  • guilt related to sexual values
  • alcohol use (leads to reduction in condom use)
  • mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity
  • Some predictive factors of sexual restraint
  • higher intelligence
  • religious engagement
  • presence of a father
  • participation in service learning programs
  • X from mother; X or Y from father determines sex
  • Sexual differentiation takes place at 7 weeks. Y chromosome triggers development of male sex organs and hormones
  • At 4-5 months, sex hormones bathe the child's brain and influence his or her development
  • Atypical hormone exposure or sensitivity may cause atypical fetal development designated as intersex
  • There can also be chromosomal abnormalities that lead to a variety of intersex conditions
  • Continued individuation from parents
  • Growing independence
  • In industrialized nations, the time between the end of puberty has lengthened and young adults are taking longer to assume adult roles

Biology and Sexual Orientation

Environment and Sexual Orientation

  • 3% men, 1-2% women identify as exclusively homosexual
  • Depression rates and suicide attempts are higher amongst homosexual people due to bullying, harassment, and discrimination
  • Role of environment:
  • no connection to relationship with parents
  • not caused by hatred or fear of the opposite sex
  • not caused by levels of sex hormones in blood
  • most were not abused as children
  • most children raised by homosexual parents are straight
  • no known links to environment

Module 52: Social Development and Emerging Adulthood

The period of sexual maturation leading to the ability to reproduce

  • Begins at age 11 for girls and 13 for boys
  • Primary sex characteristics - development of reproductively necessary organs
  • Secondary sex characteristics - development of nonreproductive traits
  • Menarche - a woman's first menstrual period

Occurs mostly in individualistic cultures

Emerging Adulthood

Module 49: Gender Development

Other Theories of Moral Development

Module 50 - Parents, Peers and Early Experiences

Nurture of Gender

Cognitive Development

  • Gender typing - the acquisition of traditional male and female roles
  • Ideas about gender roles are shaped by culture with widely varying degrees of equality - they are largely learned
  • Social learning theory - We learn through observation and imitation. This behavior is reinforced or punished
  • Some people feel that their gender identity differs from their birth sex. They are described as transgender (this is distinct from sexual orientation)
  • No key terms
  • Read on your own
  • Focus on interplay of nature/nurture
  • Look at the roles that various people in your life play
  • Gender
  • Aggression
  • Gender role
  • Role
  • Gender identity
  • Social learning theory
  • Gender typing
  • Transgender
  • Neural networks are still forming
  • Pruning occurs at the end of puberty
  • Limbic system and frontal lobes are still developing explaining emotionality and impulsiveness
  • Ability for abstract thought continues to develop (Piaget's formal operations)

Haidt - Moral Foundations Theory - A social intuitionist account of moral reasoning

  • Moral feelings precede moral reasoning
  • 6 foundations:
  • Care, Fairness, Liberty, Loyalty, Authority, and Sanctity
  • Moral paradoxes
  • Kill 1 to save 5
  • Push 1 to his death to save 5
  • Though the situations are morally the same, we react differently

Similarities and Differences

  • Vocabulary
  • Intelligence
  • Happiness
  • Genetics (mostly)
  • Self-esteem (almost)
  • Higher suicide rates
  • Alcohol dependence
  • Higher rates of autism
  • Color blindness
  • ADHD
  • Higher rates of antisocial personality disorder
  • 9:1 murder arrests
  • Men more likely to use physical aggression
  • Higher paid
  • More assertive in communication
  • Larger friend groups, with more competition and less intimate discussion
  • Higher interest in computers and technology
  • Hold 80% of world government positions
  • Girls enter puberty 2 years earlier
  • Life span 5 years longer
  • 70% more fat/ 40% less muscle
  • 5 inches shorter
  • Better sense of smell
  • Two times more likely to suffer depression
  • Ten times more likely to develop an eating disorder
  • Slightly more likely to commit acts of relational aggression (gossip)
  • More concered with making social connection
  • Girls play in smaller groups, less competitive, role play real-life situation
  • Social connections - tend and befriend
  • Five times more likely to be primary caregivers

Key Terms

Module 54: Adulthood

  • Menopause
  • Cross-sectional Study - People of different ages are compared with one another
  • Longitudinal Study - The same people are researched and retested over time
  • Social Clock - The culturally-preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Physical Changes

  • Physical decline occurs, but it is gradual
  • Healthy lifestyle and exercise minimizes this decline
  • Skin loses elasticity leading to sagging and wrinkles
  • Hormones fluctuate leading to menopause in women and lower testosterone in men
  • Attitudes about these midlife changes have more impact on well-being then the changes themselves
  • Many women say they actually feel reinvigorated after menopause

Mental Changes

Death and Dying

  • We all experience loss and grieving
  • Grief is particularly painful when it is unexpected
  • Death of a child is often the most challenging loss to overcome
  • People react to death in many different ways
  • Specific types of grieving rituals or grief counseling do not correlated with a lessening of grief or a shortening of the grieving process
  • We experience gradual mental decline as we age
  • Cognitive processing speeds decline.
  • We experience some atrophy with memory being moderately impacted
  • we have good memory for life events
  • recall is diminished but recognition is largely intact
  • we also retain our skill based knowledge
  • Cross-sectional studies indicated that mental decline was a normal part of aging but longitudinal studies found intelligence stable
  • So you lose speed, maintain intelligence, and gain wisdom
  • Crystallized intelligence - accumulated knowledge and verbal skills increases with age
  • Fluid intelligence - speedy reasoning and abstract thinking decreases slowly to 75 and more rapidly thereafter

Physical Changes

  • Tasks - marriage, running a home, starting career, starting a family, creating a network of friends and coworkers
  • We are our strongest and most cognitively powerful in our 20s and 30s
  • Our 30s is often a time of reassessment with major life changes like marriage and new careers
  • Marriage and child-rearing are occurring later in both men and women

Love

  • Life expectancy in the US is 78.8 (highest is Monaco at 89.5) with actual values being higher for women
  • Muscular strength continues to decline
  • Senses also decline
  • lessening of visual acuity
  • less sensitivity to light
  • decrease in hearing and smell
  • Body is more frail and you are more susceptible to illness. Get sick less frequently due to increased antibodies from prior illness
  • We form close bonds with our spouses, especially if they share our beliefs, values and interests.
  • marriages are strongest when there are more positive than negative interactions
  • Twin studies showing that siblings are not attracted to one another's spouses suggest that chance encounters influence our levels of attraction
  • Our love for our children is even more profound
  • Marriage ages are on the rise: 27 for women and 29 for men
  • marrying later reduces risk of divorce
  • New research suggests 1 in 5 may never marry
  • Divorce rates hover around 50%
  • Cohabiting increases the risk of divorce

Social Development

  • Middle age is a time of transition
  • Jobs and families are established
  • Children may be leaving home
  • Midlife crisis or transition - was thought to be a time of strife and upheaval when people struggled with loss of youth and impending old age
  • research shows it is largely a myth, life satisfaction is similar across all ages

Middle Adulthood (40-65)

Young Adulthood (20-40)

Late Adulthood (65-???)

Unit 9: Developmental Psychology

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