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The French Revolution

The French Revolution marks a critical turning point in the history of Europe. From the 5th to the 15th century (that's 1000 years!), Europeans lived as vassals on the lands of the emerging nobility. Their daily safety was constantly threatened because of political instability and local rivalries between landlords. They needed security but had only their labor and crops to give in return.

As the Age of Discovery and the Renaissance created the opportunity for people to move into trading cities and work for themselves, medieval feudal society began to break down. The French Revolution symbolizes the final transition between feudal and modern European society.

1789 - 1799

The Old Regime

aka..."Ancient Regime"

feudalism: an arrangement of governance whereby individuals, called peasants, are provided with security and protection by a land-owning lord in exchange for a portion of grain, tax, or labor.

  • this was the state of society during the Old Regime

King Louis XVI (...the 16th!)

  • absolute monarch of France
  • ruled 1774 - 1792
  • in return for loyalty, awarded "privileges" (jobs & government positions) to the FIRST & SECOND ESTATES

FIRST ESTATE

The Catholic Clergy

  • 0.5% of the population (130,000 people)
  • owned 10% of all French lands
  • paid 0% in taxes
  • collected "tithes" (required donations) from peasants
  • provided people with education & relief services (charity)

SECOND ESTATE

The French Nobility - relatives & friends of the royal family

  • 1.5% of the population (390,000 people)
  • owned 20-25% of the land in France
  • paid 0% in taxes - enjoyed "liberty"
  • demanded grain, livestock, & labor from peasants

THIRD ESTATE

The Commoners of France

  • 98% of the population (25,480,000 people)
  • owned 65% of the land
  • paid 100% of the taxes - "regressive" tax system
  • NOT entitled to privileges
  • divided into three groups based on employment & wealth
  • owed tithes, corvee, and the taille to the clergy, nobility, and the king

Bourgeoisie: middle class citizens of France's Third Estate -

appx. 4,680,000 people

  • bankers
  • factory owners
  • merchants
  • professionals
  • skilled artisans

Some members of the bourgeoisie were as wealthy as the nobility, educated, and believed firmly in Enlightenment ideals such as liberty and equality BUT they were NOT entitled to privileges of the First or Second Estates.

The 2nd group of the THIRD ESTATE...

  • urban laborers - tradespeople, apprentices, servants
  • poverty stricken
  • often unemployed
  • relied on flour to make bread for food

The 3rd group of the THIRD ESTATE...

  • agricultural peasants
  • made up 80% of the population (20,800,000 people)
  • paid 50% of their income to the nobles, clergy, and the King's intendants
  • discontent with their low status and high tax burden

Enlightenment Ideals

  • right to keep property
  • right to speak and publish freely
  • right to representative government
  • right to justice by trial
  • right to revolution

Social Injustice & Inequality

Third Estate carries the First and Second Estates

First Estate supported by Third Estate

Second Estate supported by the Third Estate

Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, became the symbol of 18th century Bourbon excess. She was married to Louis XVI at 14 years old as part of a political alliance between the French royal family and the Austrian Habsburgs - traditional enemies - in repayment for French loyalty to Austria during the Seven Years' War ~ 1756-1763 (French and Indian War, here).

Empress Maria Theresa was Marie Antoinette's mother!

Marie Antoinette spoke almost no French, borrowed money from the Treasury to gamble and enjoy lavish fashions, did not give birth to an heir for the first 7 years of marriage, and remained completely isolated in the Palace at Versailles - disconnected entirely from the troubles of the French commoners.

Members of the Third Estate had no rights or privileges. Many were sent to the dungeons of Bastille Prison in Paris for minor infractions or complaints, where torture and limitless imprisonment were commonplace.

Economic Crisis

Deeply in debt after defeats during the Seven Years' War under Louis XV, the Treasury was bankrupt. France lost many of its territories in North America, including Canada, Louisiana, and portions of the Caribbean. Louis XVI was forced to raise taxes in order to prevent the collapse of his government.

The last great outbreak of The Black Plague in France occurred between 1720-1721 and killed 100,000 people. After The Plague ran its course in Europe, populations recovered rapidly and more people than ever before were demanding resources.

In the 18th century, the average French urban worker and peasant ate 2 lbs. of bread each day. The price of flour had a direct impact on the vast majority of French people. When the price doubled between 1788-1789, angry mobs of people looted grain stores, flour mills and bakeries in search of the basic ingredients to make bread. Coupled with a severe winter season, many suffered from starvation.

Seeking revenge for his grandfather's (Louis XV) losses to Britain during the Seven Years' War, Louis XVI sent supplies, ammunition, and weapons to the American revolutionaries at a cost of 5 million livres. One livre was originally equal 1 lb. of silver but the French Treasury overproduced them, causing hyper-inflation. Some estimates put the French financial contribution to the American Revolution at 5,000,000 livres - at $4 p/livre, after considering inflation, we can estimate Louis XVI spent more than $260,000,000 helping the Americans defeat the British.

Forced to raise taxes to replenish the Treasury, Louis XVI called together The Estates General. This legislative body had not convened for 175 years! They met at Versailles on May 5, 1789 to discuss the state of the French economy and debate the "vingtiemes" - a tax up to 3/20ths of income on the Second and Third Estates.

Revolution ~ Phase 1

The Estates General

The Third Estate had a considerable problem at the Estates General meeting.... the First and Second Estate could always unite their votes to out-vote the Third Estate! What do you think they might decide to do when asked to vote on the new law to raise taxes?

The National Assembly forms...

Liberals

Assembly members who were most interested in totally reforming the government, including a call for revolution, sat on the LEFT of the Assembly Hall.

Moderates

Moderates, also known as "centrists", were interested in some reforms but wanted most to take a course that would not lead to outright revolution. They sat in the MIDDLE of the Assembly Hall.

Conservatives

Assembly members who were interested most in preserving monarchy and living the most productive life under the traditions of the Old Regime. They sat on the RIGHT side of the Assembly Hall.

Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes argued that the representatives of The Third Estate should bypass the veto power of the First and Seconds Estates in the new legislature and rename themselves, the "National Assembly".

The Third Estate delegates accepted his suggestion on June 17, 1789, sweeping away absolute monarchy and beginning the essential path to revolution.

Maximillien Robespierre and the Jacobins instituted the Reign of Terror through the Committee of Public Safety on September 5th, 1793. The Terror came to a conclusion on July 28th, 1794 after the guillotine claimed 16,594 lives while another 25,000 to 100,000 French citizens were executed in mass purges across France.

Originally a moderate faction of the 1789 Estates General at Versailles, the Jacobin Club was very much like a political party that discussed issues related to government policy and advocated for specific reforms in French society. Made up of bourgeoisie men and liberal aristocrats, they actually supported monarchy until the eve of the Revolution. By 1792, and active in the National Assembly, all conservative-leaning members were excused from their membership and in 1793 the Jacobins took over the government under the leadership of Robespierre.

The Jacobins had approximately 420,000 members throughout France and wanted:

  • to discuss policies that would be implemented by the National Assembly in advance of their meetings

  • to support the Declaration of the Rights of Man - France's revolutionary constitution

  • to cooperate and communicate with other political clubs in France in order to build alliances and work toward preserving the Revolution

Maximilien de Robespierre

Known as "The Incorruptible" by his supporters and a "blood thirsty dictator" by his critics, Robespierre was a dedicated revolutionary and disciple of Rousseau who lead the Reign of Terror between 1793 and 1794.

Today, we call a political party's policy goals a "platform". The Jacobins's platform was:

  • republican government instead of absolute monarchy
  • widespread education
  • universal suffrage
  • separation of church and state

Increasingly, the Jacobins called for the unquestioned end to divine right monarchy - King Louis XVI was their ultimate enemy who opposed their platform for reform.

August 1792, Louis XVI was officially arrested for treason and conspiring with the Austrian Hapsburgs. He was tried, found guilty, and on January 21, 1793, Louis Capet - the former King of France - was sent to the guillotine as a traitor of the French people. Robespierre believed that if the Revolution was to live, then the king had to die.

The Committee of Public Safety

Formed in the spring of 1793 by the National Convention, the Committee became the primary seat of government in France by the summer of that year. Made up of 12 members, it controlled the military, judicial, and legislative powers of government. It's essential goal was to protect the new French Republic from foreign attacks - Austria, Prussia, Britain - and internal sabotage or rebellion. Robespierre was its leader from August 1793 through July of 1794.

"Let us be in revolution, because everywhere counter-revolution is being woven by our enemies. The blade of the law should hover over all the guilty." ~ Robespierre

"The government in a revolution is the despotism of liberty against tyranny." ~ MR, 1794

By the fall of 1793, Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety was arresting and executing "enemies of the Revolution" on a massive scale. Anyone could be accused of sabotage, association with an enemy of the state, or suspected of hoarding grain and sent to the guillotine.

16,594 French citizens were guillotined - while an additional 25,000 to 100,000 were swept up in the Terror and executed across France. 72% of those who perished were peasants in the former Third Estate.

Phase 3 - Napoleon

The Reign of Terror ended poetically on July 28, 1794 at the guillotine scaffold with the beheading of Robespierre. The former French subjects, who now considered themselves citizens, tired of high prices for basic necessities like bread and salt, shifted their opinion of the Revolution and began to call for a more moderate tone in the National Assembly. The French government adopted a bicameral legislature and five moderate bourgeoisie men, formed an executive committee called The Directory. Because France continued to face a critical military threat from her Austrian, Prussian, and English neighbors, The Directory appointed a new general to lead the French forces to victory - his name was Napoleon Bonaparte.

1795

Napoleon leads his troops against a band of royalists who attack the National Convention in October, 1795. He is hailed as a hero of the Revolution!

1799

Coup d'Etat = blow to the state

November, 1799 - Napoleon seizes control of the National Convention and his supporters in the legislature vote to dissolve The Directory. France, now ruled by three consuls, saw Napoleon claim the first seat and assume the powers of a dictator.

1800

Austria, Prussia, and Britain united their efforts to invade France, prevent further revolution across Europe and drive Napoleon from power. A master of military strategy, however, Napoleon led his troops to victory. By 1802, Europe was at peace and Napoleon returned home to hold a plebiscite to approve a new constitution for France.

1801

Inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the ideals of the French Revolution, Toussaint L'Ouverture seized control of Saint Domingue - Haiti, today - in 1789. Napoleon, desperate for tax revenues to prevent the bankruptcy of his government, decided to send troops to reclaim French control of the sugar trade and establish a renewed foothold in the Americas.

In 1801, Napoleon's troops were greeted with some enthusiasm by the island's revolutionary government, but when L'Ouverture issued an independent constitution for the Haitian people which abolished slavery, Napoleon ordered him arrested. A prisoner of the French government, L'Ouverture stated on his prison ship to Europe, "In overthrowing me you have cut down in Saint Domingue only the trunk of the tree of liberty; it will spring up again from the roots, for they are many and they are deep." Although he died in a French prison in 1803, the remaining French forces in Saint Domingue were defeated and forced to retreat in the same year.

1803

Unable to secure consistent revenues from Haiti, Napoleon negotiated the sale of French lands west of the newly founded United States in the Louisiana Territory in 1803. President Thomas Jefferson eagerly purchased the land for the bargain price of $15,000,000 - more than doubling the size of his country with the stroke of his pen. Napoleon was pleased to have the money and helped to create a permanent force in the Americas to prevent British hegemony for the rest of known history.

1804

One of Napoleon's strengths was establishing law and order for the French citizens. He created a uniform set of laws that applied to all people in France called the Napoleonic Code. Much like Hobbes' philosophy of government, it limited individual liberties in favor of strong but liberal authority. The Code abolished the remaining feudal laws of the Old Regime by:

  • forbidding privilege based on birth
  • allowing freedom of religion
  • declared that government jobs would go to those who were most qualified rather than to those who had the most influential connections

However, the Code also restricted freedom of the press and attempted to restore slavery in France's Caribbean colonies.

Still eager to fill the French treasury and permanently prevent all rivals from invading France, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French and took the name Napoleon I in 1804. He annexed:

  • the Netherlands because of their wealthy trading ports,
  • parts of northern Italy to secure access to the Mediterranean Sea
  • set up a puppet government loyal only to him in Switzerland - effectively controlling the very heart of continental Europe.

1805

Battle of Austerlitz

Napoleon wins continental Europe!

Battle of Trafalgar

Napoleon loses the sea!

England - victorious!

1806

Napoleon established a trade blockade in 1806, where the French Navy attempted to prevent trade and communication between Great Britain and the rest of continental Europe. He called his plan the "Continental System" and intended to destroy Britain's profitable manufacturing economy. However, the plan was largely ineffective because France had lost many of her ships in the Battle of Trafalgar and the Brits were able to stop and search ships sailing from the United States, then confiscate the goods on board. These actions eventually sparked the War of 1812 between the UK and the USA!

1812

Napoleon invades Russia!

The Continental System mandated that all nations allied to France must NOT trade with Great Britain under any circumstances. Alexander I, Russia's Czar, continued his dealings in trading grain with the UK and for that offense, Napoleon invaded Russia in June, 1812.

"No more peace with Napoleon!" he cried,

"He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!"

~ Alexander I, Czar of Russia, 1812

Although Napoleon's army was 420,000 strong, the Russians adopted a "scorched earth" retreat policy and destroyed everything they could in advance of Napoleon's forces. The Russian army set Moscow on fire, themselves, knowing that the French forces were closing in on their most populated city.

As late fall arrived, with little remaining food and almost no supplies, Napoleon led his forces back to France but his Grand Army arrived home with only 10,000 soldiers still alive.

1815

Napoleon's demise...

Following Napoleon's disastrous retreat from Russia in the fall of 1812, his Grand Army was severely weakened. Many of the replacement troops were poorly trained and unprepared for battle. After experiencing defeats by the united forces of Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden between 1813 and 1814, Napoleon was humiliated when Frederick William III of Prussia and Alexander I, Czar of Russia marched their troops into the city of Paris!

Forced into exile in 1814, Napoleon plotted his return to France from a small Mediterranean island, called Elba, off the west coast of Italy.

Napoleon escaped in March of 1815 and by June 18th, he was ready to attack his enemies near the village of Waterloo, in present day Belgium.

Although the fighting was fierce, the British and Prussian armies overpowered Napoleon's forces and finally defeated the French by the afternoon of June 20, 1815.

The soldier who wore this armor suffered a direct hit from a canon ball at the Battle of Waterloo!

In 1815, Klemens von Metternich, Foreign Minister of Austria, lead the Congress of Vienna toward restoring order to the European continent following Napoleon's years of warfare against his neighbors.

Metternich's primary goals were:

  • prevent future French aggression
  • restore the balance of power between European nations
  • restore the royal families of the Old Regime

The Congress of Vienna:

  • united the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands
  • 39 independent German states united to become the German Federation - led by Austria
  • Switzerland gained its independence
  • the Kingdom of Sardinia gained Genoa, moving Italy closer to a unified nation-state

Napoleon died of gastric cancer in 1826, while banished in exile on the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic Ocean.

In sum...

Old Regime

The French Revolution

The Estates General

Equality, Liberty, Fraternity!

...1789-1799

Rise and Fall of Napoleon

Trafalgar!

...until the Second French Republic was established in 1848!

TIME: Late 18th century PLACE: France

vs.

Tricolour Flag - French Republic

Absolute monarchy - Bourbon Family

Russia - defeated

Austria - defeated

Transfer of Louisiana Territory to the Americans, 1804

Spanish fleet - defeated!

French fleet - defeated!

Revolution - Phase 2

The Reign of Terror

Louis XVI

and the Second Estate Bourbon nobility

The Catholic Church

and the First Estate Clergy

...prior to 1789

The vast majority of French people - The Third Estate

The Jacobins

Waterloo!

1789

Pre-Revolutionary French Social Hierarchy

Context for Revolution

Seven Years' War

Bubonic Plague subsides...

French Revolution

Part 4 of 9: 10min

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