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Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory - the retina contains different receptors (cones) each sensitive to a different color

  • each receptive to a different wavelength
  • when stimulated in combination they produce vision in a wide array of colors

Sensation and Perception

Key Terms:

  • Audition
  • Frequency
  • Pitch
  • Middle Ear
  • Cochlea
  • Inner Ear
  • Sensoryneural Hearing Loss
  • Conduction Hearing Loss
  • Cochlear Implant
  • Place Theory
  • Frequency Theory

Sound Waves

  • Auditory stimulus sends particles through the air, creating waves
  • The characteristics of these waves determine the nature of the sound we hear
  • Frequency - the number of cycles per second
  • Pitch - how high or low a a sound is. It is determined by frequency
  • Loudness - measured in decibels and determined by amplitude. 0 dB is the threshold of human hearing
  • Amplitude - the height of the sound wave

http://www.teenbuzz.org/

Olfaction

Pain

Gate Theory

Melzack and Wall

Touch

The Ear

Key Terms

Perceiving Pitch

Place Theory - suggest that we hear different pitches because cells are stimulated on different areas of the cochlea

Module 21: Other Senses

  • Is experienced in the brain
  • is different for every person

Frequency Theory - the membrane vibrates at the same frequency as the sound wave conveying info about pitch

  • Theorizes that the spinal cord contains small, pain carrying nerve fibers and larger fibers that conduct other sensory information
  • when small nerves are active then pain is experienced
  • When there is competing signals from the large nerve cells, the signal from the small fibers is blocked and pain is reduced or eliminated.
  • Gate-control Theory
  • Chemical Senses
  • Olfactory
  • Gustatory
  • Kinesthesia
  • Vestibular Sense
  • Sensory Interaction
  • Embodied Cognition

Locating Sounds

  • Sensory receptors fire when the surface of the skin is touched
  • at least 6 types of receptors
  • pain, pressure, temperature
  • our ears are able to detect minute differences in the stimulus that reaches each ear
  • sound waves hit the closest ear sooner
  • sound waves are slightly louder in the closest ear

Hearing Loss

Conduction - caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Sensorineural hearing loss - caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves

Module 20:

Hearing

Smell

Body Position and Movement

  • A chemical sense
  • Each odor is unique
  • Detected by large number of sensory receptors in the top of the nasal cavity
  • Carried to the brain by the olfactory nerve
  • We are capable of detecting a tremendous number of scents
  • Strongly associated with emotion and memory

Kinesthesis - our sense of body position and movement

  • sensors are located all over our body in the muscles, joints and tendons

Vestibular sense - the sense of body movement and position. Provides a sense of balance

  • a product of the semicircular canals and the vestibular sacs
  • fluid in these structures triggers hairlike receptors providing information about the location of the head and, by extension, the body

Module 16: Basic Principles

of Sensation and Perception

Thresholds

The minimum amount of a stimulus that must be emitted for human detection

  • Researched by Gustav Fetchner

Absolute Thresholds

Sense Threshold

Vision A candle flame 30 miles away

Hearing A watch ticking 20 ft away

Smell A drop of perfume in 3 room home

Taste 1 tsp sugar in two gallons of water

Touch The wing of a bee on your cheek

dropped from 1cm

Sensation - The process that occurs when special receptors on the sensory organs are activated, allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain

Perception - The method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion

Key Terms:

  • Sensation
  • Perception
  • Bottom-up Processing
  • Top-down Processing
  • Selective Attention
  • Inattentional Blindness
  • Change Blindness
  • Transduction
  • Psychophysics
  • Absolute Threshold
  • Signal Detection Theory
  • Subliminal
  • Priming
  • Difference Threshold
  • Weber's Law
  • Sensory Adaptation
  • Gustav Fechner
  • Ernst Weber

Transduction - In sensation the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

Psychophysics - The study of how physical energy related to our psychological experience

Signal Detection

  • Thresholds are not the same for every person in every situation
  • Our ability is influenced by experiences, expectations, and psychological state
  • Signal detection seeks to predict when we will successfully detect weak stimulus and correctly reject no stimulus in comparison with failing to detect a stimulus or a false alarm

Top-down Processing - the use of pre-existing knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole. Using our experience, knowledge, and memory to make meaning out of sensory input.

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Subliminal Stimulation

Difference Thresholds

  • Stimulus that falls below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness
  • It can be detected some of the time but can it influence us, and if so, how much?
  • Priming - unconscious activation of associations, predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
  • The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
  • AKA Just noticeable difference
  • Noticed by Ernst Weber
  • Two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion not amount in order for the difference to be noticed - Weber's law

Bottom-up Processing - the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception. We take in information through the senses and then process in the brain's association areas.

Ex.

100lb weight requires 5lb for noticeable difference

200lb weight requires 10lb (not 5)

In the brain information is sent to association areas

Stimulus converted into electrical impulse

Take in sensory information

Sensory Adaptation

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus excluding other sensory information

Our sensitivity to a stimulus diminishes as a consequence to constant stimulation

  • Sight is different because eyes are constantly moving
  • adaptive benefit - being alert to novel stimulus has a survival benefit.

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to see objects when our attention is focused elsewhere

PERCEPTION

Change Blindness - we don't notice changes after interruptions to the visual field.

ESP

Module 17: Influences on Perception

Key Terms:

  • Perceptual Set
  • ESP
  • Parapsychology

Parapsychology - the study of paranormal phenomena

Perceptual Set

Context Effects

A mental predisposition to see things a certain way

  • Influenced by our experiences, assumptions, and expectations
  • Prevents us from accurately perceiving the truth

Perception and the Human Factor

  • The context of a stimulus influences the way we interpret information. Therefore,
  • the same stimulus can evoke different perceptions in different situations
  • contextual expectations influence our top down processing
  • Motivation and emotion also affect the way we interpret a stimulus.

Schemas

A concept framework that helps us organize and interpret information

Premonitions and Pretensions

Human Factors Psychology

  • Psychics' predictions are seldom true
  • Many are often so vague and general that they can be retrofitted to events after something happens
  • Limited studies reveal that dreams are not prophetic
  • Seemingly prophetic events happen no more frequently than one would expect by chance
  • Extra sensory perception
  • Telepathy - I can read your mind
  • Clairvoyance - I can "see" what's happening somewhere else
  • Precognition - I can "see" the future
  • Psychokinesis - I can bend your spoon

Types of ESP

Perceptual Illusions

Perceptual Constancy

Explores the interaction between people and machines.

  • facilitates safe and efficient use of technology
  • employs natural mapping to design intuitive controls that require no instruction or labeling
  • reduces human error in using complex machinery

We perceive objects as being unchanging even if our sensation of the object changes. Constancies apply to light, color, shape and size

Due to the ways in which our brain typically organizes sensory information, we are susceptible distortions or misinterpretations in our interpretation of visual stimuli

Shape

Lightness

Visual Organization

Module 19: Visual Organization and Interpretation

Size Distance Relationship

Experiments in ESP

Visual Capture - the tendency of vision to dominate the other senses

  • Gestalt
  • Figure-ground
  • Grouping
  • Depth Perception
  • Visual Cliff
  • Binocular Cues
  • Retinal Disperity
  • Monocular Cues
  • Phi Phenomenon
  • Perceptual Constancy
  • Color Constancy
  • Perceptual Adaptation

Gestalt - an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into a meaningful whole

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Color

Size

  • Daryl Bem, Emeritus Cornell University Psi lab and Charles Honorton- reenacted the Ganzfeld experiments
  • Reported a 32% success rate in participants being able to receive psychically transmitted images
  • Replication was not successful
  • Zener Cards
  • Created by paranormal psychologist Carl Zener
  • Designed to test esp (used by J.b. Rhine)
  • Discredited due to flaws in methodology
  • No high scoring subject were ever reliably detected

Form Perception

Perceiving Motion

  • Our ability to detect motion is imperfect
  • Smaller objects seem to be moving faster than larger objects traveling at the same speed
  • Stroboscopic motion - we perceive constant motion in a rapid series of similar images
  • Phi phenomenon - the illusion of movement created when neighboring lights blink on and off in rapid succession

Figure and Ground - we first determine what part of the image is the relevant object or figure and what is the background

Grouping - we are wired to make sense of visual stimuli by grouping

  • Proximity - nearness
  • Similarity - likeness
  • Continuity - smooth patterns
  • Connectedness - we perceive a link between uniform nearby objects

Perceiving Depth

Binocular Cues

Monocular Cues

Retinal Disparity - we note the differences between the images detected in each eye and use the information to calculate distance

Convergence - we detect tension in our eyes as they turn inward to view closer objects. This allows us to determine distance

  • Relative size - closer objects appear larger

  • Interposition - closer objects block the view of objects further away

  • Relative Clarity - closer objects appear more clearly

  • Texture Gradient - texture is more coarse and detailed up close

  • Relative Height - objects higher in our visual field are perceived as farther away and objects lower in our visual field as closer

More Monocular Cues

  • Relative Motion - as we move stationary objects seem to move with us. Objects nearer than the fixation point move backwards. Objects beyond the fixation point move with you
  • Linear Perspective - parallel lines appear to converge as they move into the distance.
  • Light and shadow - nearby objects reflect more light so dimmer objects seem farther away

Visual Cliff

  • Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
  • Tests depth perception in infants and young animals
  • Depth perception is partially innate

Taste

  • A chemical sense
  • We have different types of taste receptors that are capable of detecting 5 different tastes
  • Our hardwired responses to sweet and bitter flavors had survival value
  • Aversions form quickly when we eat something that sickens us

Sensory Interaction

The Eye

  • One sense affects the way we experience another
  • Information about taste is combined with information about smell and is processed in the temporal lobe of the brain
  • Pupil - Adjustable opening that allows light to enter the eye
  • Iris - colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil
  • Lens - focuses the image onto the retina by changing its curvature (accommodation)
  • Retina - The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that contain the receptor rods and cones which process visual information
  • Sclera - The white, protective outer layer of the eye
  • Cornea - the transparent covering of the pupil and iris. It contributes to the eyes focusing power

Embodied Cognition

  • The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements
  • Simply, how sensory input from the environment affects the way we think and reason

The Retina

Visual Acuity

  • Acuity - Sharpness of vision
  • Nearsightedness - inability to see clearly at a distance
  • Farsightedness - Inability to focus clearly on near objects
  • Optic Nerve - carries visual information to the brain
  • Blind Spot - point where the optic nerve leaves the eye. No rods or cones are located here
  • Fovea - central focal point in the retina. Rods and cones cluster here
  • Rods - detect black, white and grey, necessary for peripheral vision. operates in low light conditions
  • Cones - located in the center of the retina, cones provide fine detail and color. Do not operate in low light conditions

Visual Information Processing

Parallel Processing

Feature Detection

  • We process various aspects of visual stimulus such as color, depth, movement, and form, simultaneously
  • Perceptual processing also occurs at this time, allowing us to interpret and make meaning

Hubel and Wiesel (Nobel Prize 1981)

  • feature detecting neurons in the occipital lobes' primary visual cortex are specialized to respond to specific features of visual stimulus such as shape, orientation, or movement
  • these neurons send the information to the appropriate association areas in the temporal lobe for more sophisticated processing

Color Vision

Opponent-Process Theory

  • Proposed in 1878 by Ewald Hering in response to lingering questions about color vision such as, "Why are there color combinations we do not see like reddish-green?"
  • We have three opponent systems: Red-Green, Blue-Yellow, and Black-White
  • Those receptors cannot send out information about more than one color at a time

Afterimage Effect

If you continue to stare at a strong stimulus for a prolonged period of time, you desensitize the neurons

Color Constancy

See...

  • We understand that objects have a consistent color, even when light conditions change its color
  • We use contextual clues to process visual information

its all about the context clues

Light Energy

Taste

Wavelength - the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

Module 18: Vision

Hue - With visible light wavelength determines hue or color

Amplitude - the height of a wave. It determines a color's intensity (brightness)

AP Psychology

Key Terms

  • Wavelength
  • Hue
  • Intensity
  • Pupil
  • Iris
  • Lens
  • Retina
  • Accommodation
  • Rods
  • Cones
  • Optic Nerve
  • Blind spot
  • Fovea
  • Acuity
  • Nearsightedness
  • Farsightedness
  • Feature Detectors
  • Parallel Processing
  • Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic (three-color) Theory
  • Opponent-process Theory
  • David Hubel
  • Torsen Wiesel
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