二次創作物の
制作習慣・規則
コミック学において
コミック学における二次創作物の立場
-二次創作物に著作権が与える影響-
the division between amateur and professional works is made on the basis of 
copyright law
modern aesthetic ideals
relevant
characteristics of active fandom
Implications for
comics studies
Lessig mentions
dojinshi as an example of companies being sensible about copyright:


# reputation of 'derivative' works

# 'original', but all stories are derivative
# 'of higher quality' because the authors were 'good enough' to get published, but getting published is not purely a question of talent
# of less artistic value
# legally problematic
# bad reputation of 'fans'
# freedom to publish (particularly online)

# not monolithic, many divides between groups who consume different kinds of work (e.g. yaoi vs. hentai)

# participatory: a much less clear divide between artists and readers than in commercial culture, readers consume and discuss works together

# self-regulating: fans ban works that are not 'transformative' enough or other fans who disrupt the community

# mixing of media:
    use of media different from original work
    variety of media considered part of 'fanverse'
    (manga, meta, texts, music, games, single-panel
    illustrations, icons, ...)
potential for repeating line of reasoning that led to comics being considered not fit for academic research
distinction between amateur and professional works is based purely on legal categories -questionable legal categories
A) Amateur works are not considered 'standard' manga. Why?
A rich ethic governs the
creation of doujinshi. It is not doujinshi if it is just a copy;
the artist must make a contribution to the art he copies, by
transforming it either subtly or significantly. A doujinshi comic can
thus take a mainstream comic and develop it differently—with a
different story line. Or the comic can keep the character in character
but change its look slightly. There is no formula for what makes the
doujinshi sufficiently “different.” But they must be different if they
are to be considered true doujinshi. Indeed, there are committees that
review doujinshi for inclusion within shows and reject any copycat
comic that is merely a copy.
Yet there is an obvious reluctance, even among Japanese lawyers, to
say that the copycat comic artists are “stealing.” This form of Walt
Disney creativity is seen as fair and right, even if lawyers in
particular find it hard to say why.

It's the same with a thousand examples that appear everywhere once
you begin to look. 
Perhaps the best account in the end was offered by a
friend from a major Japanese law firm. “We don't have enough lawyers,”
he told me one afternoon. There “just aren't enough resources to
prosecute cases like this.”

# erosion of control over creative works by big media because of new technologies (Bardzell 2007, Lessig 2004)
# ...leads to diminishment of the larger public domain of ideas because media companies try to counter the effects of new technologies by strengthening their legal control over creative works

dojinshi sold openly
# everyone knows of Comiket
# dojinshi compilations sold in regular bookstores
nevertheless, fans are very careful
# warnings in dojinshi not to show dojinshi to those "not in the know"
# no use of potentially copyrighted images anywhere (also not online: see lack of pictures in Japanese Wikipedia)
Why do Japanese copyright holders tolerate dojinshi?
# too many dojinshika to litigate
# breeding ground for new artists
# fanworks are free advertising
no ties to 'big media' that give privilege
to a certain group of authors and exclude
or marginalize so-called 'special interest' topics
A few quotes from 'Free Culture'
http://www.free-culture.cc/freecontent/
B) Evolution of copyright (Lessig 2004)
we/academia/media companies
divide 'amateur' from 
'professional' work 
(and generally treat the latter 
more favourably)
http://tinyurl.com/yljp6ga
Acorn: 'Discrimination in academia and the cultural production of intellectual cachet'

...but how do we decide
what is 'amateur'?
The influence of fanwork's legal status on its status as an academic subject: the case of dojinshi in manga research
Present day: 'extraordinary' situation
A short history of copyright law
# First copyright law in England (Statute of Anne, 1710)
# Since then, gradual changes in...
    # definitons of what is copyrighted
    # duration of copyrights (how long it takes for
       something to pass into the public domain)
# distinctions between manga and dojinshi/fan comics are based on a perceived amateur-professional divide
# this divide is made purely on the basis of legal distinctions that are very questionable
# this, coupled with other influences, leads to one kind of comic -the officially published one- being considered 'standard'
# ...which may be considered factually incorrect and socially irresponsible, and has several implications for comics research in general
# commercial companies decide which writers/topics are fit for publication and wide distribution (problems with discrimination in publishing)
# academia has similar standards
that have little to do with 'objectivity'
Consequences of amateur-professional divide
for dojinshi in comics studies
# lack of knowledge/scholarship

# often considered separate from 'regular' manga/comics, and dismissed as 'amateur' work (Bardzell 2007)

# ignoring fanwork means ignoring work by unpriviliged groups
B. 著作権の変更（Lessig）
著作権法の歴史
現代の著作権法が異常
アマチュアな作品はどのように認定されるか
学会・マスメディアの会社がアマチュアとプロの作品を区別し、プロ作品の価値を高める
アマチュア・プロ作品分裂の二次創作物のコミック学における立場への影響
# 二次創作物についての研究・知識が足りない

# 二次創作物が標準的なコミックと全く別の
媒体と思われ、軽視される

# 二次創作物を軽視することは社会的に特権化されていない作者・読者の声を軽視することでもある
オタクをテーマとした研究が多いが、オタクが創作するものについての研究が割と少ない
# 著作権法はイギリスのStatute of Anneから始まる（１７１０）
# １７１０より段々変更してきたのはー
    # 知的所有権の定義：アイディアが物として定義されるようになり、二次創作物・                 許可なしの翻訳が禁止される
　  # 著作権保護期間の延長：１４年から７０－１００年以上
アマチュア・プロ作品の分裂は疑わしい法的カテゴリーの分裂
A. 同人誌はなぜ標準的なマンガとして認められないか
# reputation of 'original' works
二次創作物の世評
原作・オリジナルの世評
コミックと同人誌・二次創作物はアマチュア・プロ作品というアイディアに基づいて分裂される

この分裂は疑わしい法的カテゴリーの分裂にしかならない

この分裂によって、ある種類のコミック（商業物であるコミック）は標準的になる

この分裂は誤解であり、コミック学という分の全体にも影響を与える
コミックは学術的な研究に適当しないと判断した学会の轍を踏む恐れがある
# インターネットのせいでマスメディアが知的所有物の使用を制御できなくなる
# インターネットの影響を取り戻すため、マスメディアが創作物を制御する法律を変える・変えようとする
# 原作に基づいて作られたものに創作性が足りない
# 著作権侵害・パイラシー
# アマチュア作者への悪い世評（オタク）
# オリジナルで創作性がある
# 作者がプロになれたから作品の質が高い
²完全にオリジナルと言える作品は存在しない
プロになれるということは才能の問題だけではない。出版社は売れる作品を求め、社会的に特権化されていない作者・読者の声に耳を傾けない
Present-day ideas on copyright are based on laws that are created to protect profits of large media companies, NOT to regulate the spread of ideas in a responsible way by mediating between authors' and readers' rights
-> use of legal arguments against 'derivative' works makes no sense, certainly not in an academic context
現代の著作権に関する常識は著作法から生まれる。
しかし、著作法が守るのは
　　　
　　　作者と読者のお互いの権利のバランスを　　　    ²²²²²²とれたアイディアの分配
　　　
　　　マスメディアの会社（とプロ作者）の企業収益

そのため、二次創作物を法的な理由で原作から分裂
することに意味がない
つまり
Conclusions
already outdated
What are these derivative works we discuss in this paper?

    * dojinshi
    * fan art
    * fan comics

    * Very little content analysis of dojinshi (numbers on dojinshi??)
    * mostly discussed in legal context
          o numbers from LM
          o previous research

-> little is known about dojinshi
Dojinshi's current status in manga research
Why this lack of research? PRO - AMATEUR DIVIDE
MYTH OF THE AUTHOR/ORIGINALITY
PROFESSIONALISM
OBJECTIVITY
CREATIVITY
          o history of art theory (Woodsmansee)
          o financial motivations behind creation concepts authorship and copyright (Lessig, Woodsmansee, DDD)
          o Busse
          o birth of the author -> death of the author -> WHO'S IN CHARGE NOW?
    * reputation of 'original' works
    * reputation of 'derivative' works (derivative is not an appropriate categorization because all creative work is derivative)
Divide based on purely legal categorizations
Debunking the legal argument

What influences this divide in the case of the derivative works discussed here?

    * copyright law
          o In Japan
          o copyright law and fanwork
    * status of women's writing
    * academic culture

-> dojinshi separated from manga for academically unsound reasons
Implications for comics/manga studies

    * gender influences
    * tech
          o "the poor fit between law and technology" (Tushnet) -web, print technology
    * open culture
# affective
# repetitive
Main argument
Intro
LITERATURE/ART
ACADEMIA
modern construct
law is behind times in matters of tech (lessig) and lit theory (woodsmansee)
CONCLUSION: cp sucks as basis for separating djs from manga, has real-world negative consequences