Biology Study Guide

This should cover everything we've learned since the begining of the semester. Hopefully everyone can remember....
:)
MEASUREMENT
REMEMBER: you can only estimate one decimal past what you already know.

For instance, if you have a whole meter stick--with no tick marks whatsoever--you can only estimate one decimal place past the whole number.
The more tick marks on your measuring tool, the more precise your measurement can be. 
Next up....
GRAPHING!
If you were measuring the arrow, what would be your best possible estimation?
|
|
1
2
Inches
Vertical axis       --->
This axis show the
dependant variable
(Typically called "y")
Horizontal axis ^
This axis shows the independant variable
(Typically called "x")
Origin  --->
Slope:
»best-fit line
   ▲ (change in) y       ------------------------
           ▲ x
25
35
45
55
0
10
20
30
40
For example...
To find the slope of the above graph, you would solve the following equation:

▲Y          55-45         10        1 cell
-------  =  ---------  =  -----  =  --------
▲X          30-20         10         1° C

65
50
1 cell
-------
1° C
Quantitative:
For every 1° C rise in temperature, one more yeast cell grows.
Qualitative:
As the temperature increases, the number of yeast cells increases.
Qualitative vs. Quantitative:
Quantitative gives exact amounts.
Qualitative gives a general statement.
Hypothesis:
»an educated guess
"The number of yeast cells will increase with higher temperatures."
Next is Ecology,
Ecology, to put it simply,is the study of the interactions between
living organisims.
Ecologists study many diffrent things, and preform various tests that are not 
always done in a lab.
This is a branch of biology.
Some important vocab to rember:
Abiotic- Non-living (not to be confused with dead- once living; now not)
Biotic- Living
Population- made up of individual organisms of the same species
Biosphere- portion of earth that supports life
Ecosystem- made up of all the orginisms and non-living factors in an area
Also:
Autotrophs- organism that collects energy and produces their own food
Heterotrophs- organism that get energy from eating other organisms

Energy flow:
All organisms are classified by the way they obtain energy. 
Energy flows through feeding relationships. These are commonly shown in food webs, and chains.
Each step is called a trophic level.  Generally autotrophs, or producers (such as plants, algae, etc) 
begin the chain then it moves on to the heterotrophs, or consumers. There are also subcategories
for heterotrophs such as first and second rate consumers.
Types of Models:
Food chain: the simplest model of them all. Each organism geting their energy from the organism it 
eats. The flow of energy being one way, always ending at a top consumer (predator).
Food Web: the more complex model, typically showing all the organisms eaten by a consumer. It 
gives a more accurate picture of how energy flows in an ecosystem.
Cells


The cell theory states that:

1.) All cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA
2.) All living things are composed of cells
3.) Cells are the basic unit of life
4.) Cells only arise from existing cells
Plant cells

Have a cell wall
Are box-shaped
Contain chloroplast, organelles that are used in plotosynthesis
Animal cells

Are free-form, due to the fact that they have no cell walls, only membranes
Prokaryotes:

Bacterial cells
Contain DNA
No true nucleus, only a nucleoid region
Have a cell wall
Eukaryotes:

Include plant cells, animal cells, and fungi
Have a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles
BioChemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter, matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Biology is the study of life. Living organisms are made up of matter.
Do you get the connection?
 
Atoms are the building blocks ofmatter.
Atoms contain electrons (negative charge), 
protons (positive charge), and neutrons (neautral).
They also have a nucleus that is at the center of the atom.
Protons and neutrons are located inside the nucleus.
Electrons are located outside and around the nucleus.
The Ins  and Outs of An Atom...
Vocab:
Element: pure substances that cannot be broken down  into other substances. In the
Periodic Table they are all listed. Living organisms are made up of three main elements;
oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen.
Isotope: atoms of the same element that have the diffrent amounts of netrons. They are identified by adding thew amount of the amount of protons and neutrons. (Ex; Carbon-14)
Compound: formed by two or more elements combining
Chemical Bond: force that holds two substances together.  Involves electrons, they travel around energy levels, the rings around the atom. There are two main types of bonding; covalent and ionic.
Covalent
2 types of bonding
Ionic
Form when atoms share electrons
Makes molecules

An atom that gives up an electron, or recieves an electron
After giving or recieving an elctron the atom gets an electric charge.
van der Waals Forces
Electrons travel randomly. This movement can shift the 
distribution of protons and electrons, momentarily
creating an opening that can allow protons and electrons to 
attract each other. These attractions are called
van der Waals.
These forces are the reason water molecules stay
together. They are not as strong as covalent and ionic bonds,
though.
Atom Notation!
z= "atomic #"
A= "mass number"
Chemical Symbol
Atomic #= protons
Mass #= neutrons and protons
Find neutrons by subtracting the mass number by the atomic number.
Regular atoms have no charge. The reason behind this is  they have equal protons and 
electrons.
All atoms want 8 electrons in their outer shells. If the don't have 8 e- (electrons), they bond
to fix it.
The only electrons that matter are on the outer most energy level.
Covalent bonding Rules
Remember:
Non-metals share with non-metals on the periodic table only
Periodic Table of Elements and Bonding
Ionic bonding can only happen between non-metals and metals
Covalent Bonding can only happen between non-metals and 
other non-metals
Each column has it's own outer # number of elecrons.
Ex: Column 1= 1 electron on outermost energy level
       Column 2= 2 electrons on the outermost level
       Column 13= 3 electrons on the outer most level.
This does not work for the middle columns. :(
Adhesion, Cohesion, Surface Tension & Capillary Action
cohesion: water sticking to water
surface tension: amount of force that the water's surface can take, before giving in
polar molecule: a cell that has charges on an end, and the opposite charge on the other
non-polar: doesn't have opposite charges
Organelles
Nucleus:

Controls cells
"Powehouse"
Contains DNA stored in chromasomes
Contains a smaller structure call the nucleolus that make ribosomes

Ribosomes:

Makes proteins by reading genetic coding
Has 2 subunits
Found in the rough ER
Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

Contains ribosomes
Same basic structure of smooth ER
Makes/secretes proteins

Cell membrane:

Found in all cells
Controls what goes in/out of the cell
Golgi Apparatus:

Finishes protein synthesis
Packages proteins/lipids from rough ER into vesicles for transport to their final destination

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

Has cisternae
Does NOT contain ribosomes
Makes/secretes lipids
Detoxifies drugs/toxins

Cell Wall:

Found in plants/bacteria
Made of cellulose, making it think and fibrous
In the nucleus:

DNA travels through a nuclear pore, and into a ribosome the was created byt he rough ER.

Ribosome then travels to the golgi apparatus, where it is packaged in a vesicle. 

The vesicle travels to the plasma membrane, where it is allowed by the liupid bilayer to exit the cell.
Exocytosis
Lipid Bilayer
Polar
Non-polar
Types of cells
Cell theory
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
FUEL

sugars/starches

Main source: glucose
Fats, oils and 
lipids
Store energy

insulate
Protiens
structure, endocrine, transport

enzymes, keratin, and collagen

made of amino acids
Nucleic acids
blueprint

DNA or RNA
The food groups:
Proteins: wake up your brain
Carbs: wake up your muscles
Nucleic acids: tell cells what to do
Lipids: contain stored sugars
Hormones
in the endocrine system

estrogen/testosterone

control growth

insulin  (found in pancreas)
Enzymes
Make reactions

shape-specific bonding

Temperature affects them

Membrane transport
Diffusion:

high to low concentration
no energy required
Osmosis:

water diffusing to a higher solute concentration
"remember: "water chases the solute"
Facillitated Diffusion
Protein channels allow certain solutes though
Active Transport
Solutes are carried by a protein receptor against the gradient
Requires energy (ATP)
Solutes travel against the gradient (low to high concentration) 
No energy required
Solutes travel along the gradient (high to low concentration)
ATP
Gradient:

Scale showing difference in two areas' solute concentration
IN
OUT
Larger gradient
IN
OUT
Small gradient
Remember the egg experiment:

When there was more salt in the water than in the egg, water was drained out of the egg, making it shrink. When there was more salt in the egg, water was absorbed by the egg, causing it to grow.

WATER CHASES SOLUTE  : )
Remember:   
Structure <----> dictates <----> function
And finally;
The most recent topic we've covered is how cells produce energy. There are two diffrent
ways this happens. Cellular metabolism and photosynthesis. We already know that 
photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts. But cellular metabolism occurs in the
mitochondria. And their are two sub-categories of cellular metabolism. Those
are:
Catabolism: breaking substances down
Anabolism: building substances up


Catabolic reaction of Cellular Metabolism:
used for cellular respiration
Cell Metabolism 
in 3 easy steps!
1. Glycolosis: process in which gluclose molecules split, creating
pyruvate, and ultimately releasing CO2 and creating Acetyl CoA




Thank you, and that's the end!!
 
2. Krebs Cycle: process that takes place in the mitochondria's matix.
Involves CoA, that gives off two of it's carbon molecules to create a 6 carbon
chain, that eventually lose 1 carbon to a pair of oxygen molecules. This happens
twice leaving a chain of 4 carbons. Then it begins again. (Thus making it
a cycle.) Also energy that is leftover is turned into ATP.
3. Electron Transport Chain/ ATP Synthesis: this process uses electrons that
travel throught the mitochondria membrane. These electrons travel and switch on
the protein pump that takes hydrogen out of the mitochondria. After this, they 
continue to travel  passing through the ATP Synthase in search of 
oxygen. (Making ATP) Once the electron finds the oxygen, it negatively
charges it, then the oxygen leaves to neutralize itself with positively charge hydrogen. 
This makes water.