In current manga and comics studies, non-fiction works, works that do not appear in printed form, and amateur works created outside of the "official" publishing industry are relegated to the periphery of the field at best. Can a field called "global comics studies" be relevant without first overcoming this lack of inclusiveness? If we wish to engage in cross-cultural comparisons of certain creations within well-defined theoretical frameworks, we must be able to define what, for our purposes, constitutes a "comic". We might assume that form dictates what is a comic, but is it even possible to establish the formal attributes of a "comic" and then determine which works conform and which do not? We might also attempt to identify "comics" based on content rather than form. However, any distinction drawn between "proper" storytelling forms and those that do not conform runs not only the risk of being arbitrary, but of dismissing the preferred modes of communication of less privileged groups.
著作権法から生まれた
アマチュア・プロ作品の分裂
二次創作物の
制作習慣・規則
コミック学において
コミック学における二次創作物の立場
-二次創作物に著作権が与える影響-
the division between amateur and professional works is made on the basis of copyright law
characteristics of active fandom
implications for comics studies
What would "global comics studies" study, anyway? Some thoughts from the perspective of fan art research 
ネラ・ノッパ氏 （²ベルギー・ルーヴェン・カトリック大学)
Nele Noppe (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium)²
　現代のマンガ／コミックス研究において、物語的でない作品や印刷物に基づかない作品、さらに二次創作ものなどが周辺的問題と見なされてしまうと言っても過言ではない。このような作品を視野に入れずに「グローバルなマンガ研究」が果たして成り立つのだろうか。理論的枠組を丁寧に用意した上、異文化の表現をめぐる比較研究を行うためには、「マンガ／コミックス」とは何かについての定義も求められる。「マンガ／コミックス」の特徴をその視覚的表現形式に見出してよいかもしれないが、しかし、それを基準に「マンガ／コミックス」である作品とそうでない作品を区別してよいのだろうか。また、形式よりも内容を基準とする可能性もあるが、「マンガ／コミックス」にふさわしい物語とそうでない物語との区別は、恣意的な結論に至る危険性だけでなく、社会的に特権化されていない作者・読者層やそれが好むコミュニーケーションの仕方を無視してしまう危険性をも抱えているのである。
要旨
Abstract
「グローバルな『マンガ研究』は
一体何を対象とするのか？
http://nelenoppe.net/fanficforensics
参考文献
references
http://www.diigo.com/user/nele_noppe/presentation_cwwc
nele.noppe@arts.kuleuven.be
What are 'dojinshi'?
# at first, amateur original fiction
# now more commonly understood as amateur manga
physical books
online manga
What's in a (printed) dojinshi?
# manga
# discussion of source work
# author's notes
# bibliographic info
# single-panel fanart
Lessig mentions
dojinshi as an example of companies being sensible about copyright:


# reputation of 'derivative' works

Who makes dojinshi?
Where are dojinshi sold?
# women (majority?) and men,
  majority teens/twenties

  サークル
# individuals
# groups
Some examples
whole made up
of many different
media
# 'original', but all stories are derivative
# 'of higher quality' because the authors were 'good enough' to get published, but getting published is not purely a question of talent
# of less artistic value
# legally problematic
# bad reputation of 'fans'
# freedom to publish (particularly online)

# not monolithic, many divides between groups who consume different kinds of work (e.g. yaoi vs. hentai)

# participatory: a much less clear divide between artists and readers than in commercial culture, readers consume and discuss works together

# self-regulating: fans ban works that are not 'transformative' enough or other fans who disrupt the community

# mixing of media:
    use of media different from original work
    variety of media considered part of 'fanverse'
    (manga, meta, texts, music, games, single-panel
    illustrations, icons, ...)
potential for repeating line of reasoning that led to comics being considered not fit for academic research
distinction between amateur and professional works is based purely on legal categories -questionable legal categories
A) Amateur works are not considered 'standard' manga. Why?
A rich ethic governs the
creation of doujinshi. It is not doujinshi if it is just a copy;
the artist must make a contribution to the art he copies, by
transforming it either subtly or significantly. A doujinshi comic can
thus take a mainstream comic and develop it differently—with a
different story line. Or the comic can keep the character in character
but change its look slightly. There is no formula for what makes the
doujinshi sufficiently “different.” But they must be different if they
are to be considered true doujinshi. Indeed, there are committees that
review doujinshi for inclusion within shows and reject any copycat
comic that is merely a copy.
Yet there is an obvious reluctance, even among Japanese lawyers, to
say that the copycat comic artists are “stealing.” This form of Walt
Disney creativity is seen as fair and right, even if lawyers in
particular find it hard to say why.

It's the same with a thousand examples that appear everywhere once
you begin to look. 
Perhaps the best account in the end was offered by a
friend from a major Japanese law firm. “We don't have enough lawyers,”
he told me one afternoon. There “just aren't enough resources to
prosecute cases like this.”

# erosion of control over creative works by big media because of new technologies (Bardzell 2007, Lessig 2004)
# ...leads to diminishment of the larger public domain of ideas because media companies try to counter the effects of new technologies by strengthening their legal control over creative works

dojinshi sold openly
# everyone knows of Comiket
# dojinshi compilations sold in regular bookstores
# ibento (e.g. Comiket)
# online
# dojinshi stores
# regular bookstores
(Europe/US: fanfic, fanart, fanvids, fan comics, ...)
nevertheless, fans are very careful
# warnings in dojinshi not to show dojinshi to those "not in the know"
# no use of potentially copyrighted images anywhere (also not online: see lack of pictures in Japanese Wikipedia)
anime
games
film
manga
original
dojinshi of
a dojinshi
this example:
first online
comiket
mandarake
clear divide
Why do Japanese copyright holders tolerate dojinshi?
# too many dojinshika to litigate
# breeding ground for new artists
# fanworks are free advertising
Main subjects?
# sex
# humor (gag)
no ties to 'big media' that give privilege
to a certain group of authors and exclude
or marginalize so-called 'special interest' topics
A few quotes from 'Free Culture'
http://www.free-culture.cc/freecontent/
B) Evolution of copyright (Lessig 2004)
we/academia/media companies
divide 'amateur' from 
'professional' work 
(and generally treat the latter 
more favourably)
http://tinyurl.com/yljp6ga
Acorn: 'Discrimination in academia and the cultural production of intellectual cachet'

...but how do we decide
what is 'amateur'?
The place of derivative works
within comics studies
-the influence of copyright law
on the  divide between amateur and professional works-
Present day: 'extraordinary' situation
A short history of copyright law
# First copyright law in England (Statute of Anne, 1710)
# Since then, gradual changes in...
    # definitons of what is copyrighted
    # duration of copyrights (how long it takes for
       something to pass into the public domain)
# distinctions between manga and dojinshi/fan comics are based on a perceived amateur-professional divide
# this divide is made purely on the basis of legal distinctions that are very questionable
# this, coupled with other influences, leads to one kind of comic -the officially published one- being considered 'standard'
# ...which may be considered factually incorrect and socially irresponsible, and has several implications for comics research in general
# commercial companies decide which writers/topics are fit for publication and wide distribution (problems with discrimination in publishing)
# academia has similar standards
that have little to do with 'objectivity'
Consequences of amateur-professional divide
for dojinshi in comics studies
# lack of knowledge/scholarship

# often considered separate from 'regular' manga/comics, and dismissed as 'amateur' work (Bardzell 2007)

# ignoring fanwork means ignoring work by unpriviliged groups
B. 著作権の変更（Lessig）
著作権法の歴史
現代の著作権法が異常
アマチュアな作品はどのように認定されるか
学会・マスメディアの会社がアマチュアとプロの作品を区別し、プロ作品の価値を高める
アマチュア・プロ作品分裂の二次創作物のコミック学における立場への影響
# 二次創作物についての研究・知識が足りない

# 二次創作物が標準的なコミックと全く別の
媒体と思われ、軽視される

# 二次創作物を軽視することは社会的に特権化されていない作者・読者の声を軽視することでもある
オタクをテーマとした研究が多いが、オタクが創作するものについての研究が割と少ない
# 著作権法はイギリスのStatute of Anneから始まる（１７１０）
# １７１０より段々変更してきたのはー
    # 知的所有権の定義：アイディアが物として定義されるようになり、二次創作物・                 許可なしの翻訳が禁止される
　  # 著作権保護期間の延長：１４年から７０－１００年以上
アマチュア・プロ作品の分裂は疑わしい法的カテゴリーの分裂
A. 同人誌はなぜ標準的なマンガとして認められないか
# reputation of 'original' works
二次創作物の世評
原作・オリジナルの世評
コミックと同人誌・二次創作物はアマチュア・プロ作品というアイディアに基づいて分裂される

この分裂は疑わしい法的カテゴリーの分裂にしかならない

この分裂によって、ある種類のコミック（商業物であるコミック）は標準的になる

この分裂は誤解であり、コミック学という分の全体にも影響を与える
コミックは学術的な研究に適当しないと判断した学会の轍を踏む恐れがある
# インターネットのせいでマスメディアが知的所有物の使用を制御できなくなる
# インターネットの影響を取り戻すため、マスメディアが創作物を制御する法律を変える・変えようとする
Japanese dojinshi
translated into english
日本の同人誌
の英語訳
Japanese dojinshi
日本の同人誌
Cover of
japanese dojinshi
日本の同人誌カバー
Non-japanese
fan comic
欧米のファンコミック
Non-japanese
fanart (American
comic style)
Non-japanese fan art
欧米のファンアート
Non-japanese
fan comic (manga style)
欧米のファンコミック（漫画スタイル）
Single-panel
art from Japanese
dojinshi
日本の同人誌からの一枚イラスト
Non-japanese
fan comic (American comic style, Frank Miller)
欧米のファンコミック
（コミックスタイル、
フランク・ミラー）
# 原作に基づいて作られたものに創作性が足りない
# 著作権侵害・パイラシー
# アマチュア作者への悪い世評（オタク）
# オリジナルで創作性がある
# 作者がプロになれたから作品の質が高い
²完全にオリジナルと言える作品は存在しない
プロになれるということは才能の問題だけではない。出版社は売れる作品を求め、社会的に特権化されていない作者・読者の声に耳を傾けない
Present-day ideas on copyright are based on laws that are created to protect profits of large media companies, NOT to regulate the spread of ideas in a responsible way by mediating between authors' and readers' rights
-> use of legal arguments against 'derivative' works makes no sense, certainly not in an academic context
現代の著作権に関する常識は著作法から生まれる。
しかし、著作法が守るのは
　　　
　　　作者と読者のお互いの権利のバランスを　　　    ²²²²²²とれたアイディアの分配
　　　
　　　マスメディアの会社（とプロ作者）の企業収益

そのため、二次創作物を法的な理由で原作から分裂
することに意味がない
つまり
二次創作物とは、ファンが原作のキャラクターや設定を独自に作り直した作品
欧米のファンアート
（コミックスタイル）
derivative works are comics/stories/pictures/... created by fans of a commercial work, using its characters and settings
Source: http://nilessa.deviantart.com/art/Harry-Potter-is-GULLIBLE-19351265
Source: http://elenai.deviantart.com/art/Comic-Harry-vs-Voldemort-22960024²
Source: http://sei-ya.deviantart.com/art/harry-head-60729791
Source: http://wolfmanx.deviantart.com/art/Frank-Miller-s-Harry-Potter-61216858
Source: http://nebezial.deviantart.com/art/harry-potter-and-the-deathly-h-121959185
Source: http://ratkins.deviantart.com/art/Harry-Potter-Color-75533702
Source: Master and pupil lover. 03 Siguma
(translation by Secret Garden)
Source: Master and pupil lover. 03 Siguma
Source: Prt. Mission in pensieve
Source: NANNANEastRoad. Beside Me